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# Stay Home # Stay Safe # Covid 19 # lockdown, , Life Process, Earth happens to be the only known planet having life. There are beings which live, die and become part, of nature again. The living organism can be differentiated from the inanimate entities on various parameters of, life processes., Maintenance of living organism is essential even if they are moving, resting or even sleeping. The, processes which together perform the function of maintenance of 'life' are called as life processes. Nutrition,, respiration, circulation, excretion are the examples of essential life processes., In unicellular organisms, all these processes are carried out by that single cell., In multicellular organisms, well-developed systems are present to carry out the processes., Nutrition, The process of acquiring food that is needed for nourishment and sustenance of the organism is called, nutrition. There are two main modes of nutrition, autotrophic and heterotrophic. Heterotrophic nutrition has, subtypes as holozoic, saprophytic and parasitic nutrition., Autotrophic Nutrition, The word Autotrophic has been derived from the word “auto” & “trophe” which means “Self”, ‘Nutrition’. If an organism can nourish itself by making its own food using sunlight or chemicals such mode of, nutrition is called as autotrophic nutrition. It is of two types i.e. Photoautotrophs & Chemoautotrophs, * Plants photosynthesize (use light energy) and are called photoautotrophs. For example:Algae, Cyanobacteria, Grasses, Phytoplanktons etc., * Few bacteria use chemicals to derive energy and are called chemoautotrophs. For, example:- Sulphur-oxidising Bacteria, Iron-oxidising Bacteria, Nitrogen-fixing, Bacteria etc., , Photosynthesis, Photosynthesis is the important process by which food is formed. The plants make food using sunlight, and water, which provides nourishment to other organism and themselves. Chlorophyll present in the green, parts absorbs light energy., This light energy is used to split water into hydrogen and oxygen. Hydrogen is then used to reduce, carbon dioxide into carbohydrates, typically glucose. Chlorophyll is essential for photosynthesis and stomata, facilitate intake of carbon dioxide., Stomata, Stomata are pores or minute openings on the leaves that help in exchange of gases. They are mostly found on, the underside of the leaf. Each stoma is guarded by guard cells and are found in open and closed state, which, Dr Sanjeev Kumar Govt. Higher Secondary School Bhalra, Bhaderwah, Email. [email protected], Mob. 9419133519, 9596978910

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# Stay Home # Stay Safe # Covid 19 # lockdown, control the opening and closing of the pore. The exchange of gases takes and transpiration takes place through, stomata., , Heterotrophic Nutrition, When an organism depends on others for food, such a mode of nutrition is called, as a heterotrophic mode of nutrition., These organisms depend on autotrophs for their nutritional requirements., E.g. Animals which eat plants as their food are called herbivores., Animals which eat other animals as their food are called carnivores., , Types of Heterotrophic Nutrition, Saprophytic, Parasitic and Holozoic nutrition are all types of heterotrophic nutrition., 1) Saprophytic Nutrition, The word Saprophytic has been derived from two words i.e. “Sapros” and “Phyton” which means, ‘rotton’ ‘plant.’ In this type of nutrition the organism feed on, , dead and decaying organic matter of plants and animals. Such mode of nutrition is called saprophytic nutrition, and the organisms are called Saprotrophs. The food is partially digested outside the body and then it is, absorbed. E.g. Fungi like Rhizopus, Mucor, Yeast, Mushrooms etc. and many Bacteria are saprophytes., 2) Parasitic Nutrition, The word Parasitic has been derived from two words i.e. ‘Para’ and ‘sitos’ which means ‘besides’, ‘food.’ In this type of Nutrition the organisms (parasite) depends on another organism (host) for its nutritional, requirement. Such mode of nutrition is called parasitic mode of nutrition. These organisms live on the body or, in the body of a host organism and derive the nutrients directly from the body of the host., For example:- Cuscuta, Orchids, Ticks, Lice, Leeches, Tapeworm etc., Dr Sanjeev Kumar Govt. Higher Secondary School Bhalra, Bhaderwah, Email. [email protected], Mob. 9419133519, 9596978910

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# Stay Home # Stay Safe # Covid 19 # lockdown, 3)Holozoic Nutrition, The mode of nutrition in which animals take their food as a whole is called as, holozoic nutrition. In holozoic nutrition, food passes through five steps as ingestion, digestion, absorption,, assimilation and egestion., For example Amoeba and all the animals such as cow, dog, cat etc., Nutrition in Amoeba, Amoeba feeds by holozoic mode of nutrition. It engulfs the food particle using pseudopodia, the process is, called as phagocytosis. The engulfed food gets enclosed in a food vacuole. As the food vacuole passes through, the cytoplasm, digestion, absorption and assimilation take place. When the food vacuole opens to outside,, egestion of undigested food takes place., , Nutrition in Amoeba, Nutrition in Paramecium, Paramecium is a unicellular organism which, exhibit holozoic nutrition where intracellular, digestion takes place. However, they have cilia, , Nutrition in Paramecium, , that help them to engulf the food through the oral groove. A food vacuole is created enclosing the food. It, moves through the cytoplasm, the process is called cyclosis., , Food digested in the food vacuole, , is absorbed by the cytoplasm. pore or cytopyge. Undigested food is given out to a tiny pore called anal pore or, Cytopyge., , Dr Sanjeev Kumar Govt. Higher Secondary School Bhalra, Bhaderwah, Email. [email protected], Mob. 9419133519, 9596978910

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# Stay Home # Stay Safe # Covid 19 # lockdown, , Difference between Autotrophic and Heterotrophic Nutrition, S.No., , Autotrophic Nutrition, , Heterotrophic Nutrition, , 1, , Organisms prepare its own food., , Organisms, , depends, , on, , other, , organisms for their food., 2, , Food is prepared in from Co2 Food can not prepared from Co2 and, and, , water, , in, , presence, , of water., , sunlight., 3, , Food is generally prepared in a Food can be obtained any time., day., , 4, , They are producers in the food They are consumers in the food, chain., , 5, , They are capable of storing They are not capable of storing, sunlight and chemical energy., , 6, , energy., , They cannot move from one They can move from one place to, place to another., , 7, , chain., , another in search of food., , In autotrophs the process of In, digestion is absent., , heterotrophs, , the, , process, , of, , digestion is required to convert, complex molecules in to simpler., , 8, , This type of nutrition takes place This type of nutrition takes place in, in green plants & certain bacteria animals and insectivores plants, like blue green algae., , Dr Sanjeev Kumar Govt. Higher Secondary School Bhalra, Bhaderwah, Email. [email protected], Mob. 9419133519, 9596978910

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# Stay Home # Stay Safe # Covid 19 # lockdown, Nutrition in Humans, Humans are omnivores, they can eat plant-based food as well as animal-based food. Being more complex,, humans have a very complicated nutrition system. The digestive system has an alimentary canal and associated, digestive glands, which together function to nourish the body., Nutrition in Humans, Humans are omnivores, they can eat plant-based food as well as animal-based food. Being more complex,, humans have a very complicated nutrition system. The digestive system has an alimentary canal and associated, digestive glands, which together function to nourish the body. There are five stages in human nutrition;, Ingestion, Digestion, Absorption, Assimilation and Egestion. Out of which four stages i.e. ingestion, digestion,, absorption and egestion take place in the alimentary canal while assimilation of food takes place in the whole, body., Alimentary Canal, Alimentary canal in humans is a long, tube of varying diameter. It starts with, mouth, , and, , ends, , with, , the, , anus., , Oesophagus, stomach, small intestine and, , Digestive System of Man, , large intestine are the parts of the, alimentary canal., Mouth, It is the opening of the alimentary canal, which helps in ingestion of food. The, buccal cavity is present behind the mouth, is also commonly referred as mouth. The, buccal cavity has teeth and tongue. The, set of teeth helps in mastication of food, while as tongue has taste buds on it, which, helps inglands, tasting, the also, food.in the buccal, The salivary, open, , Structure of Man Digestive System, , cavity and pour saliva which initiates the process of digestion., , Dr Sanjeev Kumar Govt. Higher Secondary School Bhalra, Bhaderwah, Email. [email protected], Mob. 9419133519, 9596978910

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# Stay Home # Stay Safe # Covid 19 # lockdown, Teeth, Teeth are the hard structures, present in the buccal cavity. They, help us to cut, shear and masticate, the food we eat. Vertical section, of a tooth shows four layers as, enamel,, , dentine,, , cement, , and, , dental pulp. Enamel is outermost,, shiny, highly mineralized and, hardest part of the human body., Dentine makes the bulk of the, tooth and contains 70% inorganic, , Structure of a Tooth, , salts., Cement is present at the lining of a tooth and bony socket. Dental pulp is the central soft part of a tooth, and contains nerve endings, blood and lymph vessels along with connective tissue. There are four types of teeth, in humans, Incisors, canines, molars and premolars, each with a specific function. Incisors cut the food, canines, tear the food while molars and premolars crush it. The dental formula in adult humans is 2:1:2:3., Dental Carries:Dental carries or tooth decay causes gradual softening of enamel and dentine., It starts when bacteria acting on sugars present in oral cavity produce acids that softens the enamel., Masses of bacterial cells together form dental plaque due to which saliva cannot reach tooth surface to, neutralize the acid., Brushing the teeth after eating removes the plaque. If untreated, microorganism may invade the pulp causing, inflammation and infection., Oesophagus & Stomach, Oesophagus, The swallowed food passes into the oesophagus., It is a muscular tube, about 25 cm long, with a sphincter (valve/opening) at each end., Its function is to transport food and fluid, after being swallowed, from the mouth to the stomach., Food is pushed down by peristaltic movements., Stomach, The stomach is thick-walled bag or sac-like structure situated in the upper part of abdominal cavity below the, Diaphragm., Its receives food from the oesophagus at one end and opens into the small intestine at the other end., Dr Sanjeev Kumar Govt. Higher Secondary School Bhalra, Bhaderwah, Email. [email protected], Mob. 9419133519, 9596978910

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# Stay Home # Stay Safe # Covid 19 # lockdown, The inner lining of the stomach secretes mucus, hydrochloric acid and digestive juices., Food is churned into semi-solid mass in the stomach and is called chyme., Enzymes present in the gastric juice break down the food., Hydrochloric acid helps in partial digestion of proteins and also kills harmful bacteria., Mucus secreted by the wall of stomach resists the action of HCl on itself., Small Intestine, The small intestine is the longest part of the alimentary canal, about 20 feet long in humans., It has regions, duodenum, the region which follows stomach, jejunum is the middle part and ileum is the later, region which continues further into the large intestine., The internal surface of the small intestine is folded into finger-like projections called villi., A common pancreatic duct from pancreas and liver opens into the duodenum., Most of the chemical digestion and absorption takes place in the small intestine., Large Intestine, Large intestine in humans is about 5 feet long., It has two regions, colon (about 1.5 m) and rectum (10 cm in length in the adult)., The region of large intestine after ileum is called colon while the last part is called rectum., Colon has three regions as, ascending colon, transverse colon and descending colon., At the base of ascending colon, a small finger-like out-growth is seen and is called an appendix., It houses many useful bacteria required for digestion of food., Rectum opens to outside by anus., The anus has internal and external anal sphincters., Physiology of Digestion, Mechanical digestion of food takes place in the buccal cavity where teeth masticate the food, saliva gets mixed, and it turns into a bolus., Digestion of starch starts in the buccal cavity itself, with the action of salivary amylase present in the saliva., Salivary amylase converts starch into maltose., In the stomach, the churning of food takes place due to the muscular contraction and relaxation of its wall. It, breaks down the food into simpler substances., Digestion of proteins starts in the stomach with the action of pepsin. Proteins are broken down into smaller, fragments called peptide by the action of pepsin., The bolus after mixing with gastric juice, turn into a fine soluble form known as the chyme., Chyme enters into the small intestine where complete digestion takes place due to the action of various, enzymes present in the pancreatic juice, bile and intestinal juice., The digested food is completely absorbed by the villi and microvilli of the small intestine., Dr Sanjeev Kumar Govt. Higher Secondary School Bhalra, Bhaderwah, Email. [email protected], Mob. 9419133519, 9596978910

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# Stay Home # Stay Safe # Covid 19 # lockdown, Undigested food then enters into the large intestine., Colon is responsible for absorption of water and salts whereas rectum stores the undigested food temporarily, before defecation., Digestive System in Other Animals, Digestive systems in different animals vary in structure and function., The structure of the digestive system depends on the food habits of the animal., Alimentary canal in herbivores is long as the cellulose content of their plant-based diet takes a long time to, digest., On the other hand, alimentary canal of carnivorous animals is comparatively shorter because meat gets digested, faster., Digestive Glands, Several glands produce digestive juices that help in digestion of the food., Salivary glands, Gastric glands, Liver, Gallbladder, Pancreas are few to name., Salivary glands secrete saliva which initiates digestion in the mouth itself., Gastric glands present in the wall of the stomach secrete hydrochloric acid and enzyme pepsin., The liver secretes bile which is stored in the gallbladder. Bile helps in digestion of fats., The pancreas secretes many digestive enzymes and its secretion is called as pancreatic juice., Enzymes like trypsin, chymotrypsin, lipase, amylase are present in the pancreatic juice., Pancreas, The pancreas is a long, flat gland present behind the stomach in humans., It is one of the major digestive glands and is of mixed nature i.e. endocrine as well as exocrine., As an endocrine organ, it secretes two hormones called insulin and glucagon which maintain the blood sugar, level., As an exocrine gland, it secretes pancreatic juice which is nothing but a mixture of many digestive enzymes., The digestive enzymes secreted by pancreas include trypsin and chymotrypsin and proteases which digest, proteins., It also includes amylase which digests the starch content of the food., Pancreatic lipases are the pancreatic enzymes that help in digestion of fats., Functions & Role of HCl, Hydrochloric acid in the stomach is secreted by the gastric glands and its pH is usually between 1.5 to 3.5, This acid serves following functions:, 1. Converts inactive pepsinogen and pro-rennin into active pepsin and rennin respectively., 2. Provides acidic medium for protein digestion., 3. Kills bacteria entered through food and prevents infection., Dr Sanjeev Kumar Govt. Higher Secondary School Bhalra, Bhaderwah, Email. [email protected], Mob. 9419133519, 9596978910

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# Stay Home # Stay Safe # Covid 19 # lockdown, 4. Prevents putrefaction of food in the stomach., 5. A thick layer of mucus secreted by the mucus glands of the stomach prevent itself from the action of the, gastric acid., 6. Excess acid damages gastric mucosa and causes gastric and duodenal ulcers., Functions & Role of Liver, The liver is the largest and major digestive gland of humans, , Liver, in humans, is located in the upper right-hand portion of the abdomen., This organ is dark reddish brown in colour due to an extensive blood supply., Some of the important functions of the liver are as follows:, 1. It secretes bile that helps in digestion., 2. It filters the blood coming from digestive tract before passing it to the rest of the body., 3. It detoxifies various metabolites and drugs, 4. The liver makes proteins important for blood clotting and other functions., 5. It stores and releases glucose as needed., 6. It processes haemoglobin, from the dead and worn out RBCs, for the iron content (the liver stores iron)., 7. Conversion of harmful ammonia to urea takes place in the liver., Functions & Role of Digestive Juices, Pancreatic juice, bile and intestinal juice (succus entericus) are collectively called as digestive juices., A common duct from digestive glands pours the secretions into the duodenum., Chyme enters into the small intestine where complete digestion takes place due to the action of various, enzymes., In the duodenum, the acidity of chyme is turned to alkalinity by the action of bile coming from the liver. This is, necessary for pancreatic enzyme action., Bile also emulsifies the fats into smaller globules., Pancreatic and intestinal amylases break down the carbohydrates into glucose., Trypsin and chymotrypsin are the proteases responsible for the breakdown of proteins finally into amino acids., Lipase is the enzyme which acts on the emulsified fats and breaks them down into glycerol and fatty acids., Water Absorption in Large Intestine, The large intestine is not involved in digestion of food or absorption of nutrients., The major function of the large intestine is to absorb water from the remaining indigestible food matter and, make the stool solid., The large intestine also helps in absorption of vitamins made by bacteria that normally live in the large, intestine., Dr Sanjeev Kumar Govt. Higher Secondary School Bhalra, Bhaderwah, Email. [email protected], Mob. 9419133519, 9596978910

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# Stay Home # Stay Safe # Covid 19 # lockdown, The innermost layer of the large intestine also acts as a barrier and protects from microbial infections and, invasions., Rectum stores the undigested food temporarily until defecation., , Respiration, Most of the living organisms need oxygen (from air) to obtain energy from food. This oxygen reacts, with the food molecules and burns them slowly to release energy. The released energy is stored in the form of, ATP molecules. The body can use this energy whenever require. Thus, the process of breakdown of food to, release energy is called Respiration. It involves taking of oxygen for burning of food and the eliminating the, waste product (CO2 & H2O) from the body., The process of Respiration is common to all the living organisms. It provide energy to the cells. During, this process two byproducts are formed i.e. CO2 & H2O. Out of these only CO2 is considered the real waste, product of respiration because its accumulation in the body is harmful while as water (H2O ) is not harmful to, the body. It is no doubt beneficial for the body. \, , The process is just opposite to photosynthesis because, , photosynthesis makes food (glucose) whereas respiration breaks food by using O2 and releasing CO2 & H2O., Process of Respiration, The Glucose C6H12O6 .(six carbon compounds) is oxidized in the cells during respiration and oxidation, of glucose to Pyruvic acid (three carbon compounds) takes place in cytoplasm, which is known as Glycolysis. It, occurs in cytoplasm. The oxidation of glucose to pyruvic acid does not require oxygen such as one molecule of, glucose on glycolysis produces two molecules of pyruvic acid. The pyruvic acid also known as pyruvate. It is, ketonic carboxylic acid., The fat of pyruvate formed during respiration depends on whether oxygen is present in the cells or not., If present in the cells, the pyruvate completely oxidised to CO2 and H2O and lot of energy is produced, (in the form of ATP)., If oxygen absent, pyruvate is converted to either ethanol and CO2 or Lactic acid formation depending, upon weather such process is take place in plant or animal cells and less energy is released during, this process., , Types of Respiration, Aerobic Respiration and Anaerobic Respiration, 1) Aerobic Respiration, The process in which food (glucose) is completely breakdown into CO2 and H2O by oxidation. During, this process of aerobic respiration 1molecule of glucose (food) produce 38 ATP molecules. All the organism, , Dr Sanjeev Kumar Govt. Higher Secondary School Bhalra, Bhaderwah, Email. [email protected], Mob. 9419133519, 9596978910

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# Stay Home # Stay Safe # Covid 19 # lockdown, which obtain energy by aerobic respiration cannot live without oxygen. Such type of process is takes place in, mitochondria., , 2) Anaerobic Respiration, This process is taking place in absence of oxygen. The breakdown of food (glucose) into ethanol and, CO2 and energy. This energy is then used by microorganism. Such process produces less amount of energy, , which gets stored in the form of ATP mol. It is that type of respiration which is taking place in absence, of oxygen. Several microorganisms like yeast and some bacteria obtain energy by anaerobic process., , During process one mol. of glucose produces 2 mol. of ATP. All organisms which obtain energy by, anaerobic respiration can live without oxygen., , Respiration in Plants, Like animals, plants also need energy. The plants get the same by the process of respiration. The respiration in, plants also involves the exchange of oxygen and CO2. So, oxygen and carbon dioxide are also called as, respiratory gases. The respiration in plants differ from that in animals in three respects:1) All the parts of plants perform respiration individually. On the other hand, an animal’s perform, respiration as single unit., 2) In plants little transport of respiratory gases from one part to other part of plant. On the other hand,, respiratory gases are usually transported over long distance inside an animal during respiration., 3) In plants respiration occurs at a slow rate while in animals it occurs at much faster rate., , Dr Sanjeev Kumar Govt. Higher Secondary School Bhalra, Bhaderwah, Email. [email protected], Mob. 9419133519, 9596978910

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# Stay Home # Stay Safe # Covid 19 # lockdown, Respiration in Animals, The process of exchange gases varies in different animals., 1. Through Plasma Membrane, In unicellular animals, such as amoeba, exchange of gases takes place through cell surface. They, absorb oxygen from the surrounding air or water and give out carbon dioxide through plasma membrane, by diffusion, , ., 2. Through Body Wall or Skin, Tapeworms, earthworms, and leeches use their skin for the exchange of gases. The skin of Earthworms is very thin, and moistened. Many blood cells are spread on this skin. These blood cells are known as capillaries. The exchange, of gases occurs at capillaries. They die of suffocation if their skin is dried up., , Amphibians such as frogs use more than one organ of respiration during their life. They breathe through gills while, they are tadpoles. Mature frogs breathe mainly with lungs and also exchange gas with the environment through, skin., Dr Sanjeev Kumar Govt. Higher Secondary School Bhalra, Bhaderwah, Email. [email protected], Mob. 9419133519, 9596978910

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# Stay Home # Stay Safe # Covid 19 # lockdown, , 3. Through Tracheal System, In insects like cockroaches, grasshopper, transportation of gas or gaseous exchange take place by a special type of, fine tubes is called trachea. Air containing oxygen enters through spiracles into the tracheal tubes., , e., , 4. Through Gills, A majority of aquatic animals like fish and prawns breathe through special organs called gills. Gilla are projections, of the skin that help in using oxygen dissolved in water. Gills contain blood vessels which help in exchange of, gases., , Dr Sanjeev Kumar Govt. Higher Secondary School Bhalra, Bhaderwah, Email. [email protected], Mob. 9419133519, 9596978910

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# Stay Home # Stay Safe # Covid 19 # lockdown, Fish live in water. To get oxygen dissolved in water, fish gulp water through the mouth and pump it over, the gills. Water passes into the gill chamber through gill slits. In each chamber, the water passes over the filaments., They absorb oxygen from the water and replace it with carbon dioxide formed. The water then passes out through, the gill opening and this process is repeated again and again., 5. Through lungs, Amphibians, mammals, and birds exchange gases through special respiratory organs called lungs. Lungs are airfilled sac-like structures in the chest cavity. They are connected to the outside by a series of tubes and small, opening., , Respiration in Humans, The human respiratory system is more complex and involves breathing, exchange of gases and cellular, respiration., A well defined respiratory system helps breathing and exchange of gases., Breathing involves inhalation of oxygen and exhalation of carbon dioxide., The gaseous exchange takes place in the lungs and oxygen is supplied to all cells of the, body., Cellular respiration takes place in each and every cell., , Respiratory System, The human respiratory system involves the nose, nasal cavities, pharynx, larynx,, trachea/windpipe, bronchi, bronchioles and alveoli., Dr Sanjeev Kumar Govt. Higher Secondary School Bhalra, Bhaderwah, Email. [email protected], Mob. 9419133519, 9596978910

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# Stay Home # Stay Safe # Covid 19 # lockdown, Bronchioles and alveoli are enclosed in a pair of lungs., Rib cage, muscles associated with the rib cage and diaphragm, all help in inhalation, and exhalation of gases., Exchange of gases takes place between an alveolar surface and surrounding blood, vessels., Alveoli provide a large surface area for exchange of gases., , Physiology of Respiration, Breathing in humans is facilitated by the action of internal intercostal and external, intercostal muscles attached to the ribs and the diaphragm., When the dome-shaped diaphragm contracts and becomes flattened and the rib cage, is expanded due to the action of intercostal muscles, the volume of the lungs, increases, pressure there drops down and the air from outside gushes in. This is, inhalation., To exhale, the diaphragm relaxes, becomes dome-shaped again, chest cavity contracts, due to the action of intercostal muscles, the volume inside the lungs decreases,, pressure increases and the air is forced out of the lungs., Inhaled air increases the concentration of oxygen in the alveoli, so oxygen simply, diffuses into the surrounding blood vessels., Blood coming from cells has more concentration of carbon dioxide than outside air, and thus carbon dioxide simply diffuses out of the blood vessels into the alveoli., Thus, breathing takes place due to the combined action of intercostal muscles and, diaphragm while the exchange of gases takes place due to simple diffusion., , Dr Sanjeev Kumar Govt. Higher Secondary School Bhalra, Bhaderwah, Email. [email protected], Mob. 9419133519, 9596978910

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# Stay Home # Stay Safe # Covid 19 # lockdown, , Cellular respiration, Cellular respiration is a set of metabolic reactions occurring inside cells to convert, biochemical energy obtained from the food into a chemical compound called adenosine, triphosphate (ATP)., Metabolism refers to a set of chemical reactions carried, , out for maintaining the, , living state of the cells in an organism. These can be divided into two categories:, Catabolism – the process of breaking molecules to obtain energy., Anabolism– the process of synthesizing all compounds required by the cells., Therefore, respiration is a catabolic process, which breaks large molecules into smaller ones,, releasing energy to fuel the cellular activities., Glycolysis, Krebs cycle and electron transport chain are the important processes of the, cellular respiration., Transpiration, Transpiration is a biological process in which water is lost in the form of water vapour from the aerial, parts of the plants., This process occurs mainly through the stomata where the exchange of gases (oxygen and carbon, dioxide) occurs., Transpiration helps in transportation of water from roots to upper parts of plants, , and this is, , explained by 'transpirational pull theory'., Loss of water, especially from leaves, acts as straw effect and pulls water upwards from roots. It also, acts as an excretory mechanism in plants as it helps to get rid of excess water., , Why Do We Need Lungs,  In unicellular organisms like an amoeba exchange of gases takes place through a general body surface, by osmosis.,  In lower animals like an earthworm, the gaseous exchange takes place through their moist skin.,  The requirement of oxygen is sufficiently met by these ways. But as the animal starts becoming, more and more complex, for example, human, the requirement of oxygen cannot be met alone by, Dr Sanjeev Kumar Govt. Higher Secondary School Bhalra, Bhaderwah, Email. [email protected], Mob. 9419133519, 9596978910

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# Stay Home # Stay Safe # Covid 19 # lockdown, , diffusion.,  Moreover, diffusion will not be able to supply oxygen to the deep-seated cells., The alveoli present in the lungs provide large surface area required for the necessary gas exchange., Difference between Breathing & Respiration, S.No., , Breathing, , Respiration, , 1, , It is a Physical Process, , It is both Physical & Physiological, process, , 2, , It is bringing in of oxygenated air, , It includes breathing, gaseous exchange, , and giving out of deoxygenated air., , and catabolic break down of food., , 3, , Breathing does not liberate energy., , It liberates energy., , 4, , Breathing takes places through, , Respiration takes place in cells and cell, , respiratory organs like lungs and nose., , organelles such as mitochondria., , No enzymes are used during the, , A large number of enzymes are used during, , process., , the process., , It is an extracellular process, as it, , It is an intracellular process, as it occurs, , occurs outside the cells., , inside the cells., , 5, , 6, , Transportation in Human Beings, Transportation, All living organisms need few necessary components like air, water, and food for their survival., On our regular basis, animals ensure these elements by breathing, drinking an eating., The required elements are transported to their body cells and tissues by a transportation system., In plants, vascular tissue is responsible for transporting the substances., , Transportation in Humans, Transportation in humans is done by the circulatory system., The circulatory system in humans mainly consists of blood, blood vessels and heart., t is responsible for the supply of oxygen, nutrients, removal of carbon dioxide and other excretory, products., It also helps to fight the infections., , Dr Sanjeev Kumar Govt. Higher Secondary School Bhalra, Bhaderwah, Email. [email protected], Mob. 9419133519, 9596978910

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# Stay Home # Stay Safe # Covid 19 # lockdown, , Heart, The human heart is one of the most important organs responsible for sustaining life. It muscular, organ which is located near the chest slightly towards the left in the thoracic region., The heart is the main pumping organ of the body and is divided into four chambers which are, involved in the transportation of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood., The upper two chambers are called as atria whereas the lower two chambers are called as, ventricles.,  The Heart wall is made up of a special muscles called Cardiac muscles. Which is covered by, a double membrane sac called pericardium (present in pericardial fluid).,  The average male heart weights around 280 to 340 grams (10 to 12 ounces). In females, it, weights around 230 to 280 grams (8 to 10 ounces).,  An adult heart beats about 60 to 80 times per minute, and newborn babies heart beats faster, than an adult which is about 70 to 190 beats per minute.,  The right and the left region of the heart are separated by a wall of muscle called the septum.,  The right ventricle pumps the blood to the lungs for re-oxygenation through the pulmonary, arteries. The right semilunar valves close and prevent the blood from flowing back into the, heart. Then, the oxygenated blood is received by the left atrium from the lungs via the, pulmonary veins., Structure of the Heart Wall, The heart wall is made up of 3 layers, namely:, , , Epicardium – Epicardium is the outermost layer of the heart. It is composed of a thinlayered membrane that serves to lubricate and protect the outer section., , , , Myocardium – This is a layer of muscle tissue, and it constitutes the middle layer wall, of the heart. It contributes to the thickness and responsible for the pumping action., , , , Endocardium – It is the innermost layer that lines the inner heart chambers and covers, the heart valves. Furthermore, it prevents the blood from sticking to the inner walls,, thereby preventing potentially fatal blood clots., , Dr Sanjeev Kumar Govt. Higher Secondary School Bhalra, Bhaderwah, Email. [email protected], Mob. 9419133519, 9596978910

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# Stay Home # Stay Safe # Covid 19 # lockdown, , Blood Vessels, In organisms with closed circulatory systems, the blood flows within vessels of varying, sizes. All vertebrates, including humans, possess this type of circulation. The external structure, of the heart has many blood vessels that form a network, with other major vessels emerging, from within the structure. The blood vessels typically comprise of the following:, , , Veins supply deoxygenated blood to the heart via inferior and superior vena cava, and it, eventually drains into the right atrium., , , , Capillaries are tiny, tube-like vessels which form a network between the arteries to, veins., , , , Arteries are muscular-walled tubes mainly involved in supplying oxygenated blood, away from the heart to all other parts of the body. Aorta is the largest of the arteries, and, it branches off into various smaller arteries throughout the body., , Valves, Valves are flaps of fibrous tissues located in the cardiac chambers between the veins., They ensure that the blood flows in a single direction (unidirectional). Flaps also prevent the, blood from flowing backwards. Based on their function, valves are of two types:, , , Atrioventricular valves are between ventricles and atria. The valve between the right, ventricle and right atrium is the tricuspid valve, and the one which is found between the, left ventricle and left atrium is known as the mitral valve., , , , Semilunar valves are located between the left ventricle and aorta. It is also found, between the pulmonary artery and right ventricle., , Dr Sanjeev Kumar Govt. Higher Secondary School Bhalra, Bhaderwah, Email. [email protected], Mob. 9419133519, 9596978910

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# Stay Home # Stay Safe # Covid 19 # lockdown, , Structure of Heart, Function of Heart, The heart performs the following important functions:, , , The primary function of the heart is to pump blood throughout the body., , , , It supplies oxygen and nutrients to the tissues and removes carbon dioxide and wastes, from the blood., , , , It also helps to maintain adequate blood pressure throughout the body., , The heart functions in the following ways:, 1. The arteries receive oxygenated blood from the heart and supply it throughout the body., Whereas, the veins carry the deoxygenated blood form all the body parts to the heart for, oxygenation., 2. The right atrium receives blood from the veins and pumps it to the right ventricle., 3. The right ventricle pumps the blood received from the right atrium to the lungs., , Dr Sanjeev Kumar Govt. Higher Secondary School Bhalra, Bhaderwah, Email. [email protected], Mob. 9419133519, 9596978910

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# Stay Home # Stay Safe # Covid 19 # lockdown, , 4. The left atrium receives oxygenated blood from the lungs and pumps it to the left, ventricle., 5. The left ventricle pumps the oxygenated blood throughout the body., , The flow of blood through the heart is as follows, Difference between Artery & Veins, S.No. Artery, , 1, , Veins, , An artery carries blood away from, , A vein carries blood towards the, , heart, , heart, , 2, , An artery is thicker than a vein, , A vein is comparatively thinner, , 3, , The Pulmonary artery carries, , The pulmonary vein carries, , deoxygenated blood, , oxygenated blood, , Arteries have rigid walls, , Veins have comparatively thinner, , 4, , walls, 5, , 6, , Blood flows under pressure through, , Blood flow through vein is much, , an artery, , calmer, , Lumen of arteries is narrow, , Lumen of veins is comparatively, wider, , Dr Sanjeev Kumar Govt. Higher Secondary School Bhalra, Bhaderwah, Email. [email protected], Mob. 9419133519, 9596978910

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# Stay Home # Stay Safe # Covid 19 # lockdown, , 7, , Valves are absent, , Valves are present, , 8, , Blood flows under high pressure, , Blood flows under low pressure., , 9, , It is non- collapsible, , It is collapsible, , 10 Mostly deep seated, , Mostly superficial, , Blood Pressure,  The pressure exerted by the blood when it flows through the blood, vessels is called blood pressure., , , There are two different variants of blood pressure; the systolic and, the diastolic blood pressure., , , , The pressure exerted on the walls of arteries when the heart is, filling with blood is called diastolic pressure. It constitute the minimum, pressure on arteries., ,  The normal range of diastolic blood pressure should be 60 – 80 mm, Hg., , , The pressure exerted on the walls of arteries when the heart is, pumping the blood is called systolic pressure. It constitutes the, maximum pressure applied on the arteries., , , , The normal range of systolic blood pressure should be 90 – 120 mm, Hg., , , , It is measured with an instrument called Sphygmomanometer., , Bleeding:, , Bleeding occurs when the blood vessels rupture., , , , Bleeding is stopped by the platelets that help in the clotting of blood at the, site of the injury., , , , , Blood clotting is the process of forming a clot in order to prevent excess loss, of blood from the body., It is a gel-like mass which is formed by the platelets and a fibre-like protein, Dr Sanjeev Kumar Govt. Higher Secondary School Bhalra, Bhaderwah, Email. [email protected], Mob. 9419133519, 9596978910

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# Stay Home # Stay Safe # Covid 19 # lockdown, , in the blood., , Double Circulation, , , In the human body, blood circulates through the heart twice., , , , Once it goes through the heart during pulmonary circulation and second, time during systemic circulation., , , , Hence, circulation in human beings is called double circulation., , Double Circulation, , Functions of Blood:, , It supplies food to all parts of the body., Dr Sanjeev Kumar Govt. Higher Secondary School Bhalra, Bhaderwah, Email. [email protected], Mob. 9419133519, 9596978910

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# Stay Home # Stay Safe # Covid 19 # lockdown, , , , It transport gases in the body., , , , It carries the waste matter formed in the cells to the excretory organs., , , , It regulates the temperature of the body (370C)., , , , It also supplies hormones to different parts of the body., , , , It prevents the body from various diseases by destroying the pathogenic germs., , , , It prevents excessive loss of nutrients from cuts and wounds by forming a clot., , Transportation in Plants,  Transportation is a vital process in plants.,  The process involves the transportation of water and necessary nutrients to, all parts of the plant for its survival.,  Food and water transportation takes place separately in plants. Xylem, transports water and phloem transports food, , Transportation in Plants, , Phloem,  The phloem is responsible for translocation of nutrients and sugar like carbohydrates,, Dr Sanjeev Kumar Govt. Higher Secondary School Bhalra, Bhaderwah, Email. [email protected], Mob. 9419133519, 9596978910

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# Stay Home # Stay Safe # Covid 19 # lockdown, , produced by the leaves to areas of the plant that are metabolically active.,  Sieve tubes, companion cells, phloem fibres, and phloem parenchyma cells are the, components of this tissue.,  The flow of material through phloem is bidirectional, , Phloem, , Translocation,  The long distance transport of the organic food from a source to a sink is known as, Translocation.,  Transport of food in the plant through phloem via a process such as mass flow is called as, translocation.,  Photosynthates i.e. sugars and organic molecules such as amino acids, organic acids, proteins, and inorganic solutes like potassium, magnesium, nitrate, calcium, sulfur and iron from, source tissues (mature leaves) to the sink cells (areas of growth and storage) are transported, through the phloem.,  Material like sucrose is loaded from leaves to phloem using the energy of ATP. Such a transfer, increases the osmotic pressure causing movement of water from nearby cells into in phloem, tissueandthematerialgetstransported through the phloem.,  The same pressure is also responsible for the transfer of substances from phloem to, Dr Sanjeev Kumar Govt. Higher Secondary School Bhalra, Bhaderwah, Email. [email protected], Mob. 9419133519, 9596978910

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# Stay Home # Stay Safe # Covid 19 # lockdown, , tissues where food is required.,  Thus the bulk flow of material through phloem takes place in response to an, osmotically generated pressure difference., , Xylem,  Xylem tissue transports water in plants from root to all other parts of the plant.,  Xylem tissue is made up tracheids, vessels, xylem fibres and xylem, parenchyma.,  The flow of water and minerals through xylem is always unidirectional., , Root Pressure,  Conduction of water through the xylem, from roots to upper parts of plants,, is due to many forces acting together.,  One of the forces responsible for this is root pressure.,  Root pressure is osmotic pressure within the cells of a root system that, causes sap to rise through a plant stem to the leaves.,  Root pressure helps in the initial transport of water up the roots., , Transport of Water,  Water is absorbed by the roots and is transported by xylem to the, upper parts of the plant.,  Imbibition, osmosis, root pressure and transpiration are the forces that, contribute towards the upward movement of water, even in the tallest, plants.,  Imbibition is a process in which water is absorbed by the solids. E.g. seeds, take up water when soaked.,  Osmosis is a process where water moves from the area of its lower, concentration to the area of its higher concentration.,  At the roots, the cells take up ions by an active process and this, results in the difference of concentration of these ions.,  It leads to movement of water, in the root cells, by osmosis.,  This creates a continuous column of water that gets pushed upwards. and, Dr Sanjeev Kumar Govt. Higher Secondary School Bhalra, Bhaderwah, Email. [email protected], Mob. 9419133519, 9596978910

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# Stay Home # Stay Safe # Covid 19 # lockdown, , is called root pressure.,  Transpiration contributes to the upward movement of water by creating a, staw effect.,  It pulls the water column upwards as there is a continuous loss of water, from leaves.,  All these forces act together for water transport through the xylem, , Difference between Xylem and Phloem, Xylem, , Phloem, , Xylem is the complex tissue of plants,, , Phloem is living tissue, responsible, , responsible for transporting water and, , for transporting food and other, , other nutrients to the plants., , organic materials., , It transports minerals and water, , It transports nutrients and food, , from roots to upper parts of the, , like amino acids, sugars from, , plant, , leaves to growing parts of the, plant, , Its movement is unidirectional, , Its movement is Bidirectional, , It contains xylem sclerenchyma,, , It, , xylem parenchyma, tracheids and, , phloem, , vessel elements, , tubes,and phloem fibers., , contains, , companion, , cells,, , parenchyma,sieve, , The nature of the tissues is hollow The nature of these tissues are, dead cells, , living, , with, , cytoplasm, , but, , without the nucleus., These tissues are present in the, , These tissues are present outside, , center of the vascular bundle., , of the vascular bundle., , Xylem transports only minerals and, , Phloem transports food materials, , waters from the roots., , that are prepared by the green parts, of the plants to other parts of the, plant., , Dr Sanjeev Kumar Govt. Higher Secondary School Bhalra, Bhaderwah, Email. [email protected], Mob. 9419133519, 9596978910

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# Stay Home # Stay Safe # Covid 19 # lockdown, , Excretion in Humans, Excretion,  Excretion is the process of removal of metabolic waste material and, other non- useful substances.,  Organisms like animals have an advanced and specialized system for, excretion. But plants lack a well-developed excretory system like that in, animals.,  They do not have special organs for excretion and thus excretion in plants, is not so complex., , Excretion in Unicellular Organism,  In unicellular organisms such as amoeba and bacteria, the waste, product is removed by simple diffusion through the general body, surface.,  Unicellular organisms like amoeba, paramecium excrete excess through tiny, organelles called contractile vacuoles.,  Undigested food in unicellular animals is excreted when the food vacuole, merges with the general body surface and opens to outside., , Excretory System of Humans, The excretory system in humans, includes a pair of kidneys,, a pair of ureters,, a urinary bladder, urethra, It produces urine as the waste product., , Dr Sanjeev Kumar Govt. Higher Secondary School Bhalra, Bhaderwah, Email. [email protected], Mob. 9419133519, 9596978910

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# Stay Home # Stay Safe # Covid 19 # lockdown, , Human Excretory System, , Kidneys, , , Paired kidneys are the main excretory organs of the body. They are, basically the filtration units of the human body., , , , Each kidney is made up many tiny filtration units called nephrons., , , , Filtering waste materials, medications, and toxic substances from the, blood., , , , Regulation of osmolarity i.e. fluid balance of the body., , , , Regulation of ion concentration in the body., , , , Regulation of pH., , , , Regulation of extracellular fluid volume., , , , Secreting hormones that help produce red blood cells, promote bone, health, and regulate blood pressure, , Biology Notes:- Govt. Higher Secondary School Bhalra, Bhaderwah, Dr Sanjeev Kumar # Stay Home # Stay Safe, , 29

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# Stay Home # Stay Safe # Covid 19 # lockdown, , 1., , Structure of Kidney, Nephron,  Nephrons are the structural and functional unit of kidney.,  Each kidney has millions of nephrons and it forms the basic structural and, functional unit of the kidney.,  Each nephron has two parts: Malpighian body and renal tubule.,  Malpighian body is made up of cup-like structure called Bowman's capsule, which encloses a bunch of capillaries called glomerulus.,  They together filter waste materials along with many useful substances.,  Renal tubule has regions called proximal convoluted tubule, Loop of Henle, and distal convoluted tubule.,  These regions absorb back useful substances into the blood and also filter, remaining waste substances.,  The output from nephrons is called as urine., , Biology Notes:- Govt. Higher Secondary School Bhalra, Bhaderwah, Dr Sanjeev Kumar # Stay Home # Stay Safe, , 30

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# Stay Home # Stay Safe # Covid 19 # lockdown, , Structure of a Nephron, Haemodialysis,  The Process of separating large solute molecules from the small ones by means of a, semi-permeable membrane is called Dialysis.,  When the kidneys fail, it results in a lot of complications and to, compensate of this situation is a technology called dialysis.,  It uses a machine filter called a dialyzer or artificial kidney.,  This is to remove excess water and salt, to balance other electrolytes in, Biology Notes:- Govt. Higher Secondary School Bhalra, Bhaderwah, Dr Sanjeev Kumar # Stay Home # Stay Safe, , 31

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# Stay Home # Stay Safe # Covid 19 # lockdown, , the body and remove waste products of metabolism.,  Blood from the body is removed and flowed through a series of tubes, made up of a semipermeable membrane.,  A dialysate flows on the other side of the membrane, which draws, impurities through the membrane, , Hemodialysis and artificial kidney, “Lub-dup”, The Sound of the heart beat is known as lub-dup. Lub is the first sound which is, caused by the closure of auriculo-ventricular valves and dup is the second sound caused by, the closure of the semilunar valves. The instrument used to hear heart sounds is called, Stethoscope., , Lymphatic system,  The lymphatic system comprises of colourless fluid lymph (network of fine, channels), lymphatic capillaries (tubes of varied sizes), lymphatic vessels and, lymph nodes., Biology Notes:- Govt. Higher Secondary School Bhalra, Bhaderwah, Dr Sanjeev Kumar # Stay Home # Stay Safe, , 32

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# Stay Home # Stay Safe # Covid 19 # lockdown, ,  Some amount of plasma, proteins and blood cells escape into the intercellular, spaces in the tissues to form lymph or tissue fluid.,  Lymph is similar to blood plasma but colorless and contains less protein.,  Lymph drains into lymphatic capillaries which join to form large lymph vessels, and which open into larger veins., , Composition of lymph, 1) Water, 2) Solids: The solid content found in the, lymph is as follows:, Proteins: Three varieties of proteins are, found–albumin, globulin and, fibrinogen., Fats, Carbohydrates, Other Constituents: Urea,creatinine,, chlorides, inorganic phosphorus,, calcium, enzymes and antibodies are, also present., Functions of Lymph, 1) It supplies nutrition and oxygen to, those parts where blood cannot reach., 2) It drains away excess tissue fluids., 3) Lymph returns proteins to the blood, from the tissue spaces., 4) Fats from the intestine are also absorbed through the lymph., 5) The lymphocytes and monocytes of lymph act as defensive cells of the body., 6) The lymph also removes bacteria from tissues., , Excretion in Plants,  The cellular respiration, photosynthesis, and other metabolic reactions, Biology Notes:- Govt. Higher Secondary School Bhalra, Bhaderwah, Dr Sanjeev Kumar # Stay Home # Stay Safe, , 33

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# Stay Home # Stay Safe # Covid 19 # lockdown, , produce a lot of excretory products in plants.,  Carbon, , dioxide,, , excess, , water, , produced, , during, , respiration, , and, , nitrogenous compounds produced during protein metabolism are the, major excretory products in plants.,  Plants, , produce, , two, , gaseous, , waste, , products, , i.e., , oxygen, , during, , photosynthesis and carbon dioxide during respiration.,  Excretion of gaseous waste in plants takes place through stomatal pores on, leaves. Oxygen released during photosynthesis is used for respiration while, carbon dioxide released during respiration is used for photosynthesis.,  Excess water is excreted by transpiration.,  Organicby-productsgenerated bytheplant arestored indifferent formsindifferent parts.,  The gums, oils, latex, resins, etc. are some waste products stored in plant parts like barks, stems,, leaves, etc.,  Eventually, plants shed off these parts. Few examples of the excretory products of plants, are oil produced from orange, eucalyptus, jasmine, latex from the rubber tree, papaya tree,, and gums from acacia. Sometimes plants even excrete into the soil., , Different forms of excretory products in plants, Biology Notes:- Govt. Higher Secondary School Bhalra, Bhaderwah, Dr Sanjeev Kumar # Stay Home # Stay Safe, , 34

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# Stay Home # Stay Safe # Covid 19 # lockdown, , Objective type questions (Select the correct answer), Section A, 1) The kidney in human beings are a part of the system for_________, a) Nutrition, , b) Respiration, , c) Excretion d) Transportation, , 2) The xylem in plants are responsible for ____________, a) Transport of water, , b) Transport of food, , c) transport of amino acids d) Transport of oxygen, 3) The autotrophic mode of nutrition requires_____________, a) Carbon dioxide & water, c) Sunlight, , b) Chlorophyll, , d) All of the above, , 4) The animals eat green plants as food are called__________, a) Herbivores, , b) Carnivores, , c) Carnivores, , d) Corona virus, , 5) Oxygen is released as a byproduct in which ______________, a) Respiration, , b) Photosynthesis, , c) Diffusion, , d) Osmosis, , 6) Paramecium is a ___________, a) Multicellular Organism, , b) Virus, , c) Unicellular Organism, , d) Fungi, , 7) Which carbohydrate is not digested by Man_______________, a) Fructose, , b) Glucose, , c) Lactose, , d) Cellulose, , 8) The energy liberated during Respiration is commonly trapped in the form of_____, a) MTP, , b) NTP, , c) GDP, , d) ATP, , 9) Normal rate of breathing in an adult____________, a) 12-14/minute, , b) 20-40/min., , c) 1-4/min., , d) 18-24/min., , Biology Notes:- Govt. Higher Secondary School Bhalra, Bhaderwah, Dr Sanjeev Kumar # Stay Home # Stay Safe, , 35

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# Stay Home # Stay Safe # Covid 19 # lockdown, , 10) Normal blood pressure in Human’s _____________, a) 30/70mmhg, , b) 80/120mmhg, , c) 120/80mmhg, , d) 120/80mmH2O, , Section B, 1) Select the correct statement, a) Heterotrophs do not synthesise their own food, b) Heterotrophs utilize solar energy for photosynthesis, c) Heterotrophs sysnthesise their own food., d) Heterotrophs are capable of converting carbon dioxide and water into, carbohydrates., 2) Correct sequence of Human Alimentary canal, a) Mouth, , Oesophagus, , stomach, , large intestine, , Small intestine, , b) Mouth, , stomach, , Oesophagus, , large intestine, , Small intestine, , c) Mouth, , stomach, , Small intestine, , large intestine, , Oesophagus, , d) Mouth, , Small intestine, , Oesophagus, , large intestine, , stomach, , Biology Notes:- Govt. Higher Secondary School Bhalra, Bhaderwah, Dr Sanjeev Kumar # Stay Home # Stay Safe, , 36