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_, , • •, , A Co ipetitive Book of, , AGRICULTURE, , ', , :, , V ,, , ,, , Ak t r f, , 1, S, , I, , t. ,, , 1, •., , •••, , ••••, , . ..1, -, , •, , •^, , 11, 11, , ; „1,:v.i.,:;;;;;;•• : •, •, , . '. • - •! _ •_ •, • I, , .• 1, , ., , •• • • •• ••.•-, , ', , -, , -••, t, ", '-, , 1, 0.'0 . ., 3. •, , •, , •, , MIIINSSRE, P a 0.4.1,, ts•• •• ••, V ., , ;
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CONTENTS, S.No., , Topic, , Page No., , 1., , Evolution and history, , 1-16, , 2., , General Agriculture, , 17-46, , Agronomy, , 47-150, , Soil Science, , 151-195, , Horticulture, , 196-247, , Entomology, , 248-287, , Plant Pathology, , 288-31, , 8., , Nematology, , 317-333, , 9., , Plant Breeding and Genetics, , 334-366, , 10., , Plant Physiology, , 367-380, , 11., , Extension, , 381-384, , 6., , 12., , Agricultural Economics, , 385-391, , 13., , Agricultural Statistics, , 39? -408, , 1, , Animal Production, , 409-419, , iv
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LEVOLUTION OFsAGRICULTUItE AND, , RELATED TEOIS, The term agriculture and related subjects are derived from the words, of:, /., , Agriculture- Latin word- `ager' or `agri' meaning `soil' and, , `cultura' meaning 'cultivation', Agronomy- Greek word- `agros' meaning 'field' and, `nomos' meaning 'manage', 3. Horticulture- Latin word- 'hortus' meaning 'garden' and, cultura' meaning 'culture or growing', 4. Pomology- Latin -Greek word- Combination of Latin word, `ponum' meaning 'fruit' and greek word 'logy' or 'logos, meaning 'discourse, treatise, or science'., 5. Olericulture- Latin word- `oleris' meaning 'pot herb' and, , 2., , english word 'culture' meaning 'cultivation', 6. Floriculture- Latin word•, 7. Extension- Latin word- 'ex' meaning 'out' and `tensio', , meaning 'stretching', 8. Soil Science- Latin word- `catena' meaning 'chain', 9., , Soil- Latin word- `so/um' meaning "ground', , 10. Monsoon- Arabic word- `mausim' meaning 'season', 11. Biodynamics- Greek word- `bios' meaning 'life' and, 'dynamics' meaning 'energy', 12. Truck gardening- French word truck- 'torquer' meaning `to, , barter or exchange', 13. Nematode- Greek word- `nema' meaning 'thread' and 'told', meaning, 14. Pedology- Greek word- `pedon' meaning 'soil or earth', 15. Pedogogy- Greek word- 'paid' meaning 'child' and `agogus', meaning 'leader', Evolution of Agriculture & related terms, , IMMINNEMINAMINW.ftial:, , 1, , A Competitive book of Agriculture
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16. Market- Latin word- `marcatus' meaning 'place of trade,, , traffic or merchandise'., 17. Evolution- Latin word- `evolutio' meaning 'unrolling or, , rolling out', 18. Enzyme- Greek word- 'en' meaning 'in' and `zyme' meaning, 'ferment/living', 19. Credit- Latin word- 'credo' meaning 'I trust you'., 20. Society- Latin word- `societas' which was derived from noun, `socius' meaning 'comrade, friend,ally'., 21. VulgarizationFrench, word- 'vulgarize', , meaning, , 'popularize', 22. Cell — Latin word- `cellula' meaning 'small compartment', 23. 'In- vivo' and 'In- vitro' — Latin word- 'In -vivo' meaning, `within the living' and 'In -vitro' meaning 'within the glass', 24. Plastid — GreA word- plastikas' meaning 'formed or, moulded', 25. Ecology- Greek word- 'Oikos' meaning 'house/dwelling, place' and 'logos' meaning 'study', 26. Entomology- Greek word- 'entomo' meaning 'insect' means, 'cut into(section)' and 'logos' meaning 'discourse', 27. Arthropoda- Greek word- `arthros' meaning 'segmented', and `podu.s' meaning 'leg', 28. Phytopathology- Greek word- `phyton' meaning 'plant' ,, `pathos' meaning 'ailments' and `logus' meaning, `knowledge', 29. Fungicide- Latin word- 'fungus' meaning 'fungus' and, , `caedo' meaning 'to kill', 30. Meteorology- Greek word- `Meteoro' meaning, , above the, , earth's surface' (atmosphere) and 'logy' meaning 'indicating, science', , Evolution of Agriculture & related terms
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HISTORY OF AGRICULTURE, Agriculture, since its invention and inception, has been the prime and, foremost activity of every culture and civilization throughout the, history of mankind., The first man on the was Homo erectus evolved on the earth around, 1.5 million years ago and after 5 lakh years he spreads throughout, the old world [First in tropical region and then in temperate, region]. The evolution of modern man was as follows:, , Monkey (>1.5 million year ago), Java man IHomo erectus, (15 lakh years ago)— ---÷ Cro-Magnan, Modern man /, Homo sapiens sapiens (250 thousand years ago)., 'Homo' meaning `continous' , 'erectus' meaning 'erect' and, `sapeins' meaning 'learning habit', The ancestor of modern man , Homo sapiens first time appeared in, Africa around 35 thousand years ago. The Homo sapiens different, from fellow animals due to presence of large brain, small teeth and, chin, intelligence and skill in making and use of tools. The genus, Homo get knowledge of fire control around 500 thousand years ago., , The living development of Homo sapiens is as follows:, Intelligence/brain development, making tools [First tools, was boulders (rock/stone) and spears of wood tipped with blades, of flint], 0., Hunting of animals, cooked meat on, fire, started domestication of dog, dog helped, in hunting, started gathering seeds, leaves and fruits, from jungle., , Important events in history of agriculture, Years ago, 70 million, , Event, Earliest primates, prosimians developed in trees, , 40 million, , Evolution of monkey and apes, A giant ape, Dryonithecus in Indian Siwaliks, Oldest primate , Ramapithecus with man- like, , 20 million, , 15 million, , ;0, , Evolution of Agriculture & related terms, , 3, , A Competitive book of Agriculture
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5 million, , traits in Africa and India, Closet primate ancestor to man in Africa, , 3 million, , Oldest known tool designed in Africa, , 1.5 million, , First true man , Homo erectus emerged in, , 1 million, , Indonesia and Africa, Homo erectus migrated through old world tropics, , 0.8 million, , Homo erectus populated temperate regions, , 0.5 million, , Homo erectus pekinensis learnt use and control, , 0.4 million, 90,000, 32,000, , of fire, Man made shelters out of tree branches, >, >, , 22,000, , Neanderthal man emerged in Europe, Cromagnon man , Homo sapiens sapiens, emerged in Europe, , Artists decorated walls and ceiling in France and, Spain, , Earlier than D, 10,000 B.C., , Hunting, gathering, , 8700 B.C., , D, , 7700 B.C., , D, , 7500 B.C., , D, , 6000 B.C., 4400 B.C., , D, , 3500 B.C., , D, , Domestication of sheep, Domestication of goat, Cultivation of crops (Wheat and barley, Domestication of cattle and pigs, Cultivation of maize, Cultivation of potato, Wheel was invented, Bronze was used to make tools, Plough was invented. Irrigated farming was, , D, , 3400 B.C., 3000 B.C., 2900 B.C., , D, ', , started., , 2700 B.C., 2300 B.C., 2200 B.C., 1800 B.C., , Silk moth domestication in China., , Cultivation of chick pea, pear, sarson and cotton -Domestication of Fowl, buffalo and elephant, Cultivation of finger millet (Ragi), , Evoluiton of Agriculture & related terms, , 4, , A Competitive book of Agriculture
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. 1725 B.C., 1700 B.C., 1500 B.C., , Cultivation of sorghum, :,, , Taming of horses, , ).-, , Cultivation of sugarcane. Irrigation from wells., , 1400 B.C., , Y, , Use of Iron in Middle East, , 1000-600, , >, , Second , Aryan -migration wave, age of iron,, , B.C., , iron -plough, , share, , and, , axe, , invented,, , crop, , cultivation in Punjab, Uttar Pradesh and Bihar, 543-491, , -, , Reference to farming operations in Kullavagga, and Mahavagga and Budhist literature in Pali, , 500 A.D., , '.--, , Classification of plants and animals in Brahat, Samhita of Varahamihira, , 760-800, A.D., 900-1000, A.D., , )--, , B.C., , _ Persian wheel used Araghatta (India), , 4--, , Construction of anicuts and tanks, Krishi, Parashara and Vrikshayurveda, manuals on, agricultureand botany written, A text book on, , Agriculture prepared by Kashyapa by the name, Krishi Sukti, Cultivation of sweet orange, sour orange, wild, , 15 Century, , r, , A.D., 16 Century -, , brinjal. Pomegranate, - Introduction Of Several Crops Into India By, Portuguese. They Are Potato, Sweet Potato,, Arrow Root, Cassava, Tomato, Chillies,, Pumpkin,, Papya,, Pineapple, ,, Guava,, Custardapple, Groundnut, Cashewnut, Tobacco,, American cotton, rubber, Y Portugese introduced grafting technique in, , A.D., , 1550 A.D., 1795 A.D., , Y, , horticulture, Flora India, published , Lieutenant William, Frazer started study farm at PUSA (Bihar) to, , breed horses, Evolution of Agriculture 1k related terms, , 5, , A Competitive book of Agriculture, , _
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G.L. Blane constructed Western Jainuila Lanai, , 1820 A.D., 1824 A.D., , Journal of Agriculture and Horticulture published, , Y, , Famine in Bengal and Orissa (15 lakh people, , 1865 A.D., , died), Severe famine, , 1868-69, , A.D., 1871, , Department, , >, , of, , Revenue., , Agriculture, , and, , Commerce (DRAC), 1874 A.D., , )>, , 1875 A.D., , )>, , Pune (Maharastra), Famine in Madras and Bombay presidencies, , 1876 A.D., 1877 A.D., , >, , 1881 A.D., , >, >, , )•, , 1892 A.D., , 1899-1900, 1900 A.D., 1901-1905, , Famine commission appointed., Government of India started Department o, , Revenue and Agriculture in provinces, Veterinary college established at Lahore (now in, Pakistan), , 1882 A.D., 1890 A.D., 1891 A.D., , Famine in Punjab, Central province (101ac died, Higher Education in agriculture at Coimbatore., , 1878, , 1880, , Severe famine in Bihar, Indian Meteorological Department (IMD) at, , i., , Higher Education in agriculture at Pune., Dr J A Volcker's report on improvement o, Indian Agriculture, Agriculture chemist and an assistant chemist, were appointed to look after research and, teaching, Famine (Chhapaniya Kal), Forest research Institute, , Agricultural Colleges were established at Pune,, Sabour, Nagpur, Lyallapur and, , Kanpur,, , Coimbatore, 1901 A.D., , ,--, , First Immigration commission., , Evolution of Agriculture & related terms, , 6, , A Competitive book of Agriculture
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Model Village by Daniel Hamilton, —, 1903 A.D., , Y, , An Entomologist were appointed, , 1905 A.D., , Established the Imperial (now known as Indian), , Agricultural Research Institute at Pusa, (Bihar), shifted to new Delhi in 1936., 1906 A.D., , )-•, , Started Agriculture Journal India, , 1908 A.D., , Y, , Tagore started Youth organization in the village, in the Kaligram Pargana, , 1919 A.D., , D, , Constitutional Reforms made Agriculture as a, state subject, , 1920 A.D., , GURGAON Project by F L Bryne, , 1921 A.D., , SHRINIKETAN Project by R.N.Tagore, , 1921 A.D., , )=., , MARTHANDAM Project by Spencer Hatch, , 1921 A.D., , ).-, , SEVAGRAM Project by Mahatma Gandhi., Adarsh Seva Sangh , Pohri (Gwalior) by Col., Shitole, Indian central cotton committee., Appointment of Royal Commission Agriculture, headed by Lord Linlithgow, Establishment of Imperial (now Indian) Council, of Agricultural Research (ICAR) ,New Delhi, , 1921 A.D., , fr-, , 1926 A.D., , 'fr., , 1929 A.D., , fr-, , 1930 A.D., , fr,, , SEVAGRAM Project by Mahatma Gandhi, , 1931 A.D., , )%--, , Indian Central Lac Committee, , 1932 A.D., , fr-, , Rural, , reconstruction, , movement, , by, , V.T., , Krishnamachari in Barod, 1935 A.D., , -.-, , 1936 A.D., 1940 A.D., , ).-, , _ 1942 A.D., , )--, , )., , Rural Development Programme, Indian Central Jute committee., Monthly Journal (Popular) Indian Farming, started by Imperial (Indian) Council of, Agricultural Research (ICAR), New Delhi, Department of Food created., , Evolution of Agriculture & related terms, , 7, , A Competitive book ofAgriculture
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1942 A.D., 1943 A.D., , D, D, , 1944 A.D., , D, , 1944 A.D., , D, , Grow more food campaign (Failed and again, started in 1947 GMF), Great, Bengal, Famine, , (Caused, , by, , Helminthisporium oryzae), Indian central Sugarcane committee., Dr W. Burns report on Technological, Possibilities of Agricultural Development in, , 1945 A.D., , D, , India, Sir, Pheroze Kharegat's memorandum on the, , development, , of, , Agriculture, , and, , Animal, , 1945 A.D., , D, , Husbandry in India, Indian central- Coconut committee., , 1945 A.D., , D, , Indian central tobacco committee., , 1945 A.D., , >, , Inclian Village Service by A.T. Mosher and, B.N.Gupta, D.Tharugad, , 1946 A.D., 1946 A.D., , >, , End of, , D, , Directorate of planet projection & quarantine., Central Rice research institute., Firka Development by Madras State by T.Prakasha and D. Tharugad, , 1946 or, 1947, 1947 A.D., 1947 A.D., 1947 A.D., 1947 A.D., Jan.1948, , D, D, D, D, D, , Indian Village Service by Mr. Arther, T.Mosher, and B.N.Gupta, D, , _, , Mazdoor Manzi! at Nilokheri by S.K.Dey, GATT (General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade), Etawah Pilot Project by Albert Mayer, , 1948 A.D., 1948 A.D., 1949 A.D., 1952 A.D., , Food policy committee., Indian central Oil Seeds committee., Fertilizers & chemicals Travancore., , Arecnut Committee, Pilot Training cum Development Project by Ford, , Evolution ojAgriculture & related terms, , 8, , A Competitive book of Agriculture
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Foundation, /F'd, , Community Development, , Oct.1952, 2 nd, , National Extension Services (NES), , Oct.1953, , 1956 A.D., , )--, , Project for intensification of regional research on, cotton, oil, seeds, millets(PIRRCOM), , 1957 A.D., , p, , All India Coordinated maize improvement, Project., , 1958, , ir, , Status of Deemed University accorded to IARI, under UGC Act,1956., , 1958 A.D., , -,',-, , Oct. 1958, , Spices and Cashewnut Committee, , NAFED (National, , Agricultural, , Cooperative, , Marketing Federation), 2' d, , Panchayati Raj (Democratic decentralization) 3-, , Oct.1959, , tier system by Balwant Roy Mehta , inaugurated, by J.L.Nehru on 2"d Oct.1959 in Nagaur District, _, , 1960 A.D., , );-, , of Rajasthan, , First agricultural University at Panthnagar , on, the pattern of Land grant system of USA, Agriculture, , 1960-61, , Intensive, , 1963 A.D., , >, , IADP), National Seed Corporation., , 1964, , ).-, , National Demonstration, , March,1964, , '>>, , Intensive Agriculture Area Programme( IAAP), , 1964 A.D., , )--, , Intensive Cattle Development Project (ICDP), , 1965 A.D., , )-0, , National demonstration Programme(NDP), , District, , Programme(, , ACRIPs were started on other crops as well as in, , 1965 A.D., , other areas of Research, 1966, , )=., , Placement of different agricultural research, , institutes under the purview of ICAR, Evolution of Agriculture & related terms, , 9, , A Conon-Mit • book of Agriculture
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1->--Taigh yielding Varieties Programme., F9-6-C-A.tTh7;7-Directorate of Extension., Multiple cropping schemes (MCP), ..._ . _._, 1966-67, 1967-68, , >, >, , Green Revolution, , 1969 A.D., , )•, , Second Irrigration compassion., , 1970 A.D., , )P., , National commission on agriculture., , 1971 A.D., 1970-71, , Y, , 1971 A.D., , >, , Minikit Programme (MKP), Drought Prone Area Programme (DPAP), All India coordinated project for dry land, , 1971 A.D., , Farmers Training and Education Centre (FTEC), , agriculture., Small Farmers Development Agency (AFDA), Marginal Farmers and Agricultural Labour, , )., , 1971 A.D., , Project (MFAL), 1972 A.D., , ICRISAT, , 1973, , Creation of Department of Agricultural Research, and Education (DARE) in the Ministry of, Agriculture, , 1973 A.D., 1974 A.D., , Minikit trials programme., Y, , Training & Visit system (T&V) formulated by, Daniel Benor and Baxter of Israel. Turkey was, the first started in Rajasthan Canal Area in, , Rajasthan and Chambal area in Madhya Pradesh, 1974 A.D., , Command, , 1974 A.D., 1974 A.D., 1974 A.D., 1974 A.D., , >, >, Y, , Area, , Development, , Authority, , (CADA), Operational Research Project, Food for Work Programme (FWP), Minimum Needs Programme (MNP), Krishi Vigyan Kendra . Mohan Singh Mehta, committee recommended (First at Pondichery, ,under TNAU, Coimbatore, , Evolution of Agriculture & related terms, , 10, , A Competitive hook of Agriculture
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1975, , Establishment of Agricultural Research Service, and Agricultural Scientists' Recruitment Board, , i st, , 20 Points Programme, , July,1975, 1976 A.D., , ')>, , National Rural Employment Programme (NREP), , 1976 A.D., , ';=., , Desert Development Programme (DDP), , 1976 A.D., , Antyodya Yojana, , 1976 A.D., , National Academy of Agricultural Research and, Management (NAARM), , 1976 A.D., , >, , Ashok Mehta Committee proposed two tiers, Panchayat Raj System, , April, 1978 p, , integrated, (IRDP), , 1979 A.D., , p, , Training for Rural Youth for Self Emplyment, (TRYSEM), National Agricultural Research Project (NARP), Lab to Land Programme (LLP) , on the ICAR, golden jublee year, Integrated Rural Development Programme, , --, , (IRDP), District Rural Development Programme, , Jan. 1979, 1st June,, 1979, 1979, 1980, , Rural, , Development, , Programme, , 1980, , National Rural Employment Programme (NREP), , 1980, , National Agricultural Research Project (NARP), , 1982 A.D., , Development of Women and Children in Rural, Areas (DWACRA), Council for Advancement of Peoples Action and, Rural Technology (CAPART), National Bank for Agriculture & Rural, development (NABARD), National Agricultural Extension Project (NAEP), Rural, Landless, Employment, Guarntee, , 1982 A.D., 12th July,, 1982, 1983, , 1983, , p, , Evolution of Agriculture & related terms, , 11, , A Competitive book of Agriculture
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-, , -, , 2001, 1st, , -, , -, , -, , - - - -, , Sampoorna Grameen Rozgar yojana (SGRY), -, , -, , -, , -, , -, , -, , -, , -, , -, , -, , -, , -, , -, , -, , -, , -, , -, , -, , -, , -, , -, , -, , -, , -, , -, , -, , -, , -, , -, , -, , -, , -, , -, , -, , The four erstwhile schemes of OPP, OPDP, -, , Y, , NPDP and AMDP have been merged into one, , Apri1,2004, , Centrally Sponsored, , Integrated Scheme, , of, , Oilseeds, Pulses, Oil palm and Maize (ISOPOM), being implemented from 1.4.2004, >, , National food for work programme (NFWP), , 2004, , )>, , Marine Fishing Policy, , 2004, , D, , National Commission on Farmers (Chairman Dr, , 14'1' Nov., 2004, , M S Swaminathan), July ,2006, , >, , May,2005, , >, , 2005-06, , 0-, , National Agricultural Innovation Project (NAIP), Through world bank, National Horticulture Mission (NHM), , 6thFeb., 2006, , 'r, , Bharat Nirman, National bamboo Mission, Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment, , 2006, , .-., , Guarantee Scheme (MGNREGS), National Rainfed Area Authority (NRAA) on, , 2006-07, , August,, 2007, , -, , 3.11.2006, National food security mission (NFSM), , August,, 2007, , - .-, , Rashtriya Krishi V ikash yojana (RKVY), , Domestication of plants and animals in, Estimated, time, 10,000 B.C., 8,400 B.C., , Na, , rious world regions, , Animal/plant, , Place, , Dog, Dog, , Iraq and Israel, North -Western America, , Evolution of Agriculture & related terms, , 13, , A Competitive book of Agriculture
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9,000 B.C., , Sheep and goat, , Middle- East region, , 7,000 B.C., , Pig, , Turkey, , 6,300 B.C., _, 6,000 B.C., , Cattle, , Greece, , Wheat, , Greece, , 6,000 B.C., , Lentil and peas, , Middle —East, , 6,000 B.C., , Phaseolus lunatus, , Peru, , 6,000 B.C., , Phaseolus vulgans, , Peru, , 5,000 B.C., , Kidney bean, , 5,000 B.C., , Maize, , Peru and Mexico, Mexico and South America, , 4,000 B.C., , Rice, , China and Thailand, , 3,000 B.C., , Cotton, , Africa and India, , 3,000 B.C., , Horse, , 3,000 B.C., , Ploughing began, Buffalo, , Southern Russian Turkestan, Latin America and old world, , South Eastern Asia, 2,500 B.C., Sorghum, North Africa and India, 1,800 B.C., Sunflower, Central North America, Before, 1,000, Potato (cultivated) South America, 4000 years, ago, Chickens, India, 18'h Century First plant hybrid, Artificial mutation, 1920, Source: Charles B. Heiser Jr. (1981), , INDIAN COUNCIL OF AGRICULTRAL RESEARCH (ICAR), \1928, Royal Commission on Agriculture , headed by, Lord Linlithgow recommended setting up, Imperial Council of Agricultural Research to, promote , guide and coordinate agricultural, research throughout the India., 16th July,, ICAR was set up on 16ffi July, 1929, as registered, Evolution of Agriculture & related terms, , 14, , A Competitive book of Agriculture, , _
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society under the Societies Registration Act, , 1929, , 1860., , recommendation, , the, , On, , of, , Royal, , Commission of Agriculture., March,1946, , )-•, , Under the president ship ofJogendra Singh it was, decided to change the 'Imperial' in to "Indian", and, , now, , it, , is, , called, , Indian, , Council, , of, , Agricultural Research., The Agricultural Review Team headed by Dr., , 1963, , Marion W. Parker of USDA was appointed, 1965, , >, , A policy was made to appoint an Agricultural, , scientist as the Chief Executive of ICAR , with, the designation of Director General ;Dr. B. P. Pal, become the first DG of ICAR in 1965, 1966, , >, , ICAR, , was, , made, , a, , organization on the, Agricultural Review Team, June,1972, , '1=, , 1973, , ),-., , 1st, , Nov.1973, , autonomous, recommendation of, fully, , Gajendragadkar Committee was established to, review the recruitment and personal policies of, ICAR and its institutes, which submitted its, report in 1973., Department of Agricultural Research and, Education (DARE) was created in Ministry of, food and Agriculture., The Agricultural Scientists Recruitment Board, (ASRB) was established on 1 November 1973 as, an independent recruitment agency in pursuance, of the recommendations of the Gajendragadkar, Committee., , Evolution ofAgriculture & related terms, , 15, , A Competitive book ofAgriculture
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INDIAN AGRICULTURAL RESEA ', 1905, , ", , g, , • •, , Agricultural Research Institute was established at Pusa,, Bihar under the viceroyalty of Lord Curzon. Earlier it, was in West Bengal . Help of sum of rupees 9 lakh was, donated by an American Philip of USA, , 1923, , Y Renamed as Imperial Agricultural Research Institute, ) ; Institute started offering Diploma of Associate ship., , 1934, , Major Earth quake damaged the building at Pusa,, , 1911, , Bihar., 1936, , '),-, , Shifted to Pusa Road , New Delhi, , 1936, , )--, , B.Vishwanath became the first Indian Director of, Institute, , 1946, , )=-, , 1947, , 1958, , The Diploma of Associate ship was recognized, _ equivalent to M.Sc., r• Name has been changed from Imperial Agricultural, Research Institute to Indian Agricultural Research, Institute., > Recognized as "Deemed University" under UGC Act, 1956. PG school was established., , Evolution of Agriculture & related terms, , 16, , A Competitive book of Agriculture
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2. GENERAL A6RICULTURE, About to Indian Agriculture:, V Geographical area of India is:, V, Total reporting area of India is:, Total degraded land of India is:, V, , 328.74 mha., 306 mha, 187 mha, , V, _, V, , Gross cropped area of India is:, , 193 mha, , Gross irrigated area of India is:, , 76 mha, , V, , Net irrigated area of India is:, Net cropped area of India is:, Cropping intensity of India is:, Forest area of India is:, , 57 mha, , V, V, V, , 141 mha, , 135 %, , 20.4 % of total, geographical area, , V, , State having highest geographical in, India, , Rajasthan., , V, , The state which is 2 n in geographical, , MP, , area:, MP, , V, , Highest forest area in the state:, The state which is I in pulse, production:, , V, , The state which is 1st in food grain, , U. P., , V, , production:, The state which is 1s1in total coarse, , Rajasthan, , V, , cereal prod.:, The state which is 2"din food production:, , Punjab., , V, , The state which is I' in wheat, , U. P., , V, , production:, The state which is 2 n in wheat, , Punjab., , V, , production:, Water vapor in the atmosphere constitute, , V, , only about:, sf, V, V, , Annual World precipitation is:, Average annual rainfall of India:, C;:nerated rainfall volume:, Generol Agriculture, , 17, , MP, , 0.001 % of the total, global water, 1000 mm, 1194 mm, _, 400 mha-m, , A Competitive book of Agriculture
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,./, , Maximum area under irrigation is in:, , V, , Optimum forest area required:, , V, , Maximum area under drip irrigation is, , Ganga basin, 33% of Geographical, area, Maharashtra, , in:, Highest fertilizer consumption rate, (Includes States and Union Territories), V Highest fertilizer consumption, rate(Among States) :, V Total fertilizer consumption is maximum, in :, V Maximum area under irrigation is in :, , V, , Pundicherry (1091.0, kg/ha), Punjab (212 kg/ha), U.P., Punjab (92.7% of, cultivated area)., , Important facts:, ,/, , Most poisonous pollutant in water is:, , Arsenic., , .4, , Maximum concentration of ozone is, found in:, , Lower stratosphere., , V, , Forest conservation act was made in the, , 1980., , year:, V, , The test has self purification capacity of, water body:, , BOD test., , V, , Most commonly disinfectant in water, purification is:, Gases responsible for acid rain:, Pollutant free alternative to petrol for, automobiles:, The gas responsible for Bhopal gas, tragedy 1984:, MIC was used for manufacturing of, insecticide:, Author of famous book "silent spring", 1962 is:, Largest ocean:, Establishment of NA BA RD:, , Chlorine., , V, V, V, V, V, V, V, , General Agriculture, , 18, , SO2 and NO2., , Propane., MIC (methyl, isocyanate)., Carbaryl, Rachel Carson., Pacific., 12 July, 1982., A Competitive book of Agriculture, , -, , •
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_, , N7, , R.B.I. was established in which year:, , 1935., , V, , Proteins are made up of:, , Amino acids., , V, , Ozone depletion mainly due to:, , CFC (chloro floro, carbon)., , One mol. of CFC is destroyed about, , V, , of Ozone., , 100,000 mol.:, , Gas filled in fire extinguisher cylinders, , V, , _, CO2, , is:, V, , Contribution of agriculture to GDP, , 14.2 %, , (2010-11):, V, V, , Plough is used to turn over the soil is:, , Carbohydrate which is only present in, , Mould bould plough, Glycogen, , animal cells:, , The pesticide consumption is maximum, , V, , Andhra Pradesh, , in:, , Present Union Agriculture Minister:, Sharad pawar, Total KVK up to Oct,2013, 630, V Present DG of ICAR:, Dr. S. Ayyappan, Phosphamidon, V Recently banned pesticides is:, V Pesticide which is going under procedure Endosulfan, to ban:, On Maize (1957), V First all India Co-ordinate Research, Project (AICRP):, Groundnut(Junagarii., V First National Research Center (NRC), Gujarat)., for:, Biosphere., V The region inhabited by living organism, on land, ocean and atmosphere:, ✓, Name the plants which produce lbod themselves through, photosynthesis: Phototrophs/autofrophs., • Sui✓generis"✓used✓in✓GATT✓proposals✓is✓a✓Latin✓‘‘ord✓means 'a, , V, V, , ✓, , system of its own'., India won, Neem patent in March 2005. from G. R. Grace, Company of America since, 1999., , General Agriculture, , 19, , ,1 Competitive bao, , t AcilitAptute
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In northern India, sometimes rain takes place in winter which is, , v, , due to: Western depression (JRF-97/RPS(', A0-09)., V National agricultural insurance scheme (NAIS)/ Rashtriya, Krishi Bima Yojna is sponsored by General Insurance, Corporation., , In total agricultural credit the contribution of commercial banks, is highest (74%), followed by co-operative banks (17%) and, rural banks (9%) in 2009. (Pre -PG -2013), V Agriculture came into existence in: 7500 B.C. when cultivation, of wheat and barley first started., Minimum support prices of various crops are recommended by, Commission on Agricultural Cost & Price (CACP), at present 24, crops under MSP., Accumulation of nutrients in a lake or pound due to human, intervention or natural process is: Eutrophication, Maximum number of campuses under a single agricultural, university: JNKVV, Jabalpur (MP), Central Agricultural University, Imp/sal (Manipur) is the only, multi state, agricultural university with seven colleges among, , ✓, ✓, ✓, , sister states., , ICAR Institutes:, Deemed to be universities:, Indian Agricultural Research Institute, Pusa (New, IARI:, ., Delhi), ., , N., , IVRI:, NDRI:, , Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Izatnagar (UP), National Dairy Research Institute, Karnal (Haryana)., , CIFE: Central Institute of' Fisheries Education,Mumbai, MH, 4., AAI: _ Allahabad Agricultural Institute, Allahabad (UP), 5., Agricultural Research Institute:, Central Agricultural Research Institute, Port, 1., CARL, Blair (Andaman & Nicobar), Central Avian Research Institute, Izatnagar, UP, . CARL, 3. CAZRI:, Central Arid Zone Research Institute, Jodhpur (Rajasthan), 1959, _.., General Agriculture, , 20, , A Competitive book of Agriculture
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Animal sciences and fisheries:, I., CARL, Central Avian Research Institute, Izatnagar (UP), ., CIFRI:, Central Inland Fisheries Research Institute,, Barrackpore (West Bengal)., ., CIFT:, Central Institute of Fisheries Technology, Cochin, (Kerala)., Central Institute for Research on Goats, Mathura, (Uttar Pradesh)., 5., CSWRI: Central Sheep and Wool Research Institute,, Avikanagar, Tonk (Rajasthan), 6., NIANP: National Institute of Animal Nutrition and, Physiology, Bangalore (Karnataka)., 7., NFDB:, National Fisheries Development Board, Hyderabad, (AP), 2006, National Bureaus:, I., National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources,, NBPGR:, New Delhi., ., NBSSLUP: National Bureau of Soil Survey and Land Use, Planning, Nagpur (MH)., National Bureau of Animal Genetic Resources,, NBAGR:, ., Karnal (Haryana)., National, Bureau of Fish Genetic Resources,, NBFGR:, ., Lukhnow (Uttar Pradesh)., National Bureau of Agriculturally Important, NBAIM:, 5., Micro-organisms, Mau, UP, National Bureau of Agriculturally Important, NBAII:, 6., Insects, Bangalore, 2009. (Formerly it was, named Project Directorate of Biological, Control)., International institutes:, International Rice Research Institute at Manila, 1., IRR1:, (Philippines) in 1960., ., CIMMYT: It is a Mexican word which denotes International, Center for Maize and Wheat improvement at, , 4., , CIRG:, , General Agriculture, , 11 0, 42, , 22, , A Competitsve book of Agnculture
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Mexico in 1966 (RAS Pre. -09), 3., , ICARDA:, ICRISAT:, , 4., , _, , ICGEB:, , IBPGR:, IIM1:, AVRDC:, , International Center for Agricultural Research in Dry land Area, Aleppo (Syria), 1977, International Crop Research Institute for Semi, Arid Tropics, Hyderabad (India), 1972, International Laboratory for Research on Animal, Diseases, Nairobi, Kenya, 1973, International Center for Genetic Engineering &, Biotechnology, Triesta, Italy & New Delhi, India, , International Board of Plant Genetic Resources,, Rome, Italy (1974), International Irrigation Management Institute:, Digana (Shri Lanka)., Asian Vegetable Research and Development, Center, Taiwan., International Institute of Tropical Agriculture,, Nigeria, 1968, International Crop Research Institute for the, Semi -Arid Tropics, Hyderabad (AP). 1972, , 10., , TITA:, , 11, , ICRISAT:, , 12., , ICARDA:, , International Center for Agricultural Research in, Dry Area at Aleppo (Syria) in 1977, , 13, , CIAT:, , International Center for Tropical Agriculture,, Columbia, 1967, , Other institutes:, National Academy of Agricultural Research and, NAARM:, I., FR!:, NCERT:, NRC-WS:, NRC-WT:, NRCGeneral Agriculture, , Management, Hyderabad (Andhra Pradesh)., Forest Research Institute: Dehradun (UK), National Council of Education Research and, Training, New Delhi., National Research Center for Weed Science,, Jabalpur (MP), National Research Center for Water technology,, Bhubaneswar (Odissa), National Research Center for Women in, 23, , A Competitive book of Agriculture
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WAR:, PDWMR:, , 7., S., , PDRR:, , 9., , PDMR, , 10., , Bhubaneswar (Odissa), , Agriculture Research,, , ARS exam -07, Project Directorate, , of, , Water, , Management, , Research, Patna (Bihar)., Project Directorate of Rice Research, Hyderabad, Project Directorate of Maize Research, Pusa, New, , PDWR:, , Delhi., Project Directorate of Wheat Research, Karnal, , (Hariana)., 11., , N1OF:, , National, , Institute, , of, , Organic, , Farming,, , Ghaziabad (UP), 12., 13., 14, , NC1PM:, , National Center for Integrated Pest Management,, , WMO:, , New Delhi., World, Meterological, , DFR:, , Quarters in Geneva (Switzerland)., Directorate of Flowericulture Research, New, , Organization,, , Head, , Delhi, 15., , DIPA:, , 16., 17., , NBB:, NASM:, , 18., , ARFIS:, , 19., , DRMR:, , 20., , APEDA:, , 21., , NAFED:, , Directorate of Information and Publication in, Agriculture, New Delhi, FluitAci-tit, z:Tc., National Biodiversity Board, NoN 113*14i_Chenr-c:u, National, Agricultural, Science, Museum,, (ICAR),New Delhi, 2004, Agricultural Research, Finance Information, System, ---------, 2004, Directorate of Rape seed & Mustard Research,, Sewar, Bharatpur (Raj.), 2009 (Formerly it was, NRC for rape seed & mustard), Agricultural and Processed Food Product Export, Development Authority, New Delhi., National Agricultural Cooperative Marketing, , 22., , NABARD:, , Federation, Oct. 1958, National Bank for Agriculture, Development, 12 July 1982, , 23., , GATT:, , General Agreement on Trade and Tariffs (Now it, , General Agriculture, , 24, , and, , Rural, , A Competitive book of Agriculture
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replaced by WTO in 1995), ., Commission for Agriculture Costs and Prices, , CACP:, 25. NIAM:, , 24., , 26., , LAMPS:, , 27., , CFQCTI:, , 28., , NPPTI:, , 29., , DMI:, , National Institute of Agricultural Marketing,, Jaipur (RAJ.), 1988, Large Sized Adivassi Multipurpose Cooperative, Society, Central Fertilizer Quality Control & Training, Institute, Faridabad, UP, National Plant Protection Training Institute,, Hyderabad, AP, Directorate of Marketing and Inspection,, Faridabad, UP, , About to ICAR:, 1926:, , Established Royal Commission on Agriculture, to, , 2., , 1928:, , examine the condition of rural economy in India, Royal Commission on Agriculture submitted its, , 3., , 1929:, , report, 16, July Imperial Council of Agricultural Research, , 4., , was formerly born to promote Co-ordinate agricultural, _ research in India, ICAR, named as Indian Council of Agricultural 1947:, , 5., , _ Research, 1st DG of ICAR was Dr. BP Pal, he Initiated All India, 1965:, , 1., , 6., 7., , 8., 9., , Co-ordinate Research Projects (AICRPs), ICAR regarded as Autonomous body, 1966:, President of ICAR: Union Minister of Agriculture, DG of ICAR also Secretary of DARE:, (Department, of, Agriculture Research and Education) established in 1973., 1 st President of ICAR: Khan Bhadur Sir Mohammad, Habib ullah, , ICAR awards: _, SN, 1, , Award, Hari Om Ashram Trust award, General Agriculture, , 25, , Field, —Published Research in Crop Science, A Competitive book of Agriculture
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Punjabrao Deshmukh Women, , For woman Agricultural Scientist, Best work in Ph. D in the field of, , Jawaharlal Nehru award, , Agriculture & Allied Sciences, Two, Innovative, Farmers, , in, , Agriculture & Allied Sciences, For Excellence Journalism in the, field of Agriculture Research and, , development, , Important publication related to agriculture:, JournaUmagazine I Published by, , kurukestra, Current science, , Ministry of Rural Development, Current Science Association &, , Place, New Del —, hi 1, Bangalore, , Indian Academy of Science, Science reporter, , New Delhi, , C.S.I.R, , Chronology of agriculture:, 1875:, Indian Meteorological Department (IMD), Pune (MH), 1881:, , Separated Department of Agriculture., , 1901:, , First Irrigation Commission, Imperial Agricultural Research Institute (IARI) started a, Pusa (Bihar), Royal Commission on Agriculture, chairman: Lord, , 1905:, 1926:, , Linlithgow, RCA submitted its report, Imperial Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR), 16, July, at New Delhi., IARI shifted to New Delhi after a devastating earthquake in, Pusa, Bihar in 1934, Great Bengal Famine (due to Helminthosporium oryzae), , 1928:, 1929:, 1936:, 1943:, 1947:, 1952:, , Grow More Food campaign, , Community Development Programme (CDP), National Extension Service (NES), IARI became Deemed University, , 1953:, 1958:, , General Agriculture, , 26, , a. • a„, re ,, , Wk., , gkar, ' k., rIEWM101.131, , Sa-2, 't, , •, , *EV, ,, , •t•P,.•Tha, Lin 4-T, 11110EVOIMSr_, _, atICEINSiitrSaM, t,, , ),, , A Competitive book of Agriculture
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Integrated Rural Development Programme (IRDP), , 1978:, , Training of Rural Youth for Self Employment (TRYSEM), Development of Women & Children in Rural Areas, , 1979:, 1982:, , (DW C RA), , Crop Insurance Scheme (CIS), now NAIS, Technology Mission on Oil seeds (TMO), , 1985:, , 1986:, 1986:, , National Watershed Development Programme for Rainfed, Areas, , 1998:, , ICAR Launched World Bank funded Programme 'National, , 1999:, , Agricultural Technology Project' (NATP), National Agricultural Insurance Scheme (NAIS), from Rabi, , 2004:, , 1999, Inauguration of National Agricultural Science Complex, , 2004:, 2005:, 2006:, 2006:, , 2007:, 2007:, , (NASC) at New Delhi, National Commission on Farmers constituted with Dr., Swaminathan as its first chairman, National Horticulture Mission, ICAR Launched National Agricultural Innovation Project, (NAIP) with financial support from World Bank., , 6 Feb. 2006 National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme, (NAREGA), later (Oct. 2, 2009) it replaced by Mahatma, Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme, NFSM (National Food Security Mission), RK'VY (Rashtriya Krishi Vikas Yojna), _, , Contribution of Agriculture Experts:, I. Dr. M. S. Swaminathan:, •, •, •, •, •, , Wheat breeder, Father of Green Revolution in India,, Ex. Member of Planning Commission, World Food Prize (1987) given by FAO, Was honored as a 'Millennium prize' by former Prime, Minister A. B. Vajpai in 88 th National Science Congress held, , on 3-7 Jan, 2001 at IARI, New Delhi., General Agriculture, , 28, , A Competitive
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•, , Ex. President of National Commission on Farmers of, India., • The book entitled" Wheat Revolution" Written by him., 2. Dr. N. E. Borlaug:, • Father of 'Green Revolution' in World, • He was American wheat scientist (Plant Pathologist), • Awarded Noble Peace Prize in 1970., 3. Verges Kurien:, • Father of White Revolution in India, • Ex. Chairman of NDDB, Anand (Gujarat), • Brain behind the scheme 'Operation Flood' (1970-1996), • Magsaysay Award, in 1963., • Got 'World Food Prize' in 1989., 4. S. K. Vashal:, • Maize breeder working at CIMMYT., • Awarded" World Food Prize" in the year 2000 for research, on QPM (maize rich in amino acids tryptophan and lysine, along with Dr. E. Villegas., 5. Dr. K. L. Chadda:, • Pomologist, • Father of 'Golden Revolution' in India., 6. Dr. R. S. Paroda:, • Forage Breeder, • Ex. D.G. of 1CAR, 7. Amrita Patel:, • Chairperson of NDDB, Anand, 8. Sanjay Raja Ram:, • International wheat breeder., • Awarded "Chinas Friendship Mandel "in 2001., 9. Dr. G. S. Khush:, • Rice breeder., • 'Wolf Prize' for agriculture, 2000 for his extra ordinary, contribution to plant breeding and genetics especially in, rice., Crop Improve Achievements:, General Agriculture, , 29, , A conpetiMec
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a., , Genetically Modified Crops:, • The crops in which one or many of its traits are altered or, enhanced through a process of genetic engineering known, as GM crops i.e. Bt. Cotton developed against cotton boll, worms., Bacillus thuringensis is a soil bacterium that produces, proteins lethal to insect larvae affecting the digestive, , •, , system of boll worms., The gene responsible for this effect is Cry-lAc., , •, •, , GM cotton is only crop permitted by Genetic Engineering, Approval Committee (GEAC) under Ministry of, Environment and Forestry first permitted on March, 2002., • Bt. Cotton varieties developed by Mahyco: MECH-12,, MECH-162, MFCH-184 for Southern States and RCH-134,, RCH-138 suitable for Northern India., • Mahyco collaborated with Monsanto to developed Bt., Variety Bollgourd-1, using Cry -I Ac gene., • Recently Bt. Variety developed as Bollgourd-ll, having both, genes of Cry I Ac and Cry 2 Ab gene., •, , First transgenic crop was: Bt. Tobacco (1987), , •, , Country having first position for transgenic plants is:USA, Rank of India for transgenic plants is: Fourth, , •, , •, •, , The position of transgenic plants in world (in area):, Soyabean (> 60 %) > Maize > Cotton > Canola., Mostly GM traits are used as herbicides resistant traits, followed by quality improvements and insecticides, resistant traits., , b., , Genetically modified mustard:, • These are glyphosate resistance mustard developed by Pro- I., Agro Seed Company Ltd. (an ancillary Company of Bayer ;, •, •, , Crop Science, Germany)., Project on Indian mustard oil with higher B -carotene is, initiated by: TERI (Tata Energy Research Institute)., Varieties developed of Bras,s.ica juncea at "{ER!, unnat and TERI-uttam., , General Agriculture, , 30
Page 33 :
Golden Rice: (RPSC, AO Exam -2012), • It is genetically modified rice., • Having a -carotene (precursor of Vit-A) rich rice., d. Super Rice:, • Developed by Dr. Gurdev Singh Khush at IRRI, which, would bring an improvement of 25% of over present day, varieties., e. Hybrid Rice:, • I s' time in World developed in China in 1974 by Prof. Long, Ping Yuan, hence known as 'Father of Hybrid Rice'., • India is second to developed hybrid after China i.e. MGR1(earlier named as CoRH-1) developed first by TNAU,, Coiinbatore and PRH-1 & P14II-6 developed by JAR!., f. Hybrid Mustard:, • Developed by DRMR (Directorate of Rapeseed and Mustard, Research), Bharatpur (Rajasthan), • Varieties developed by DRMR are: NRC-HB-506 (first, hybrid mustard in India)., • Other is: NRC-HB-1, g. Super Wheat:, • The research on super wheat is in progress at DWR, Karnal, • It was expected to come by 2005, yield increase 15-20 per, cent., 11. Green Revolution:, • The term G.R. coined by William S. Gaud in 1968 of, USAID; to describe the productivity based improvement in, food production particularly in wheat and rice., • Main components in green revolution are High yielding, varieties, use of chemical fertilizers and plant protection, chemicals., i. Ever Green Revolution:, • This term coined by Dr. M S. Swaminathan to denote the, green revolution based on sustainable methods of crop, intensification and diversification., j. Vertical Revolution in Agriculture:, c., , General Agriculture, , 31, , A Competitive book of Agriculture
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•, , Maximizing production per unit land area per unit of time, using intensive cropping system cropping system, high, production inputs and improved management practices., , k. Other Revolutions in Agriculture:, Revolution:, Related to:, 1. White Revolution:, Milk Production, 2. Blue Revolution:, Fish Production, 3. Brown Revolution:, Food Processing, 4. Grey Revolution, Fertilizer Production, 5. Yellow revolution:, Oil Seeds Production (mustard), 6. Red Revolution, Tomato/Meat Production, 7. Pink Revolution:, Prawn /Onion Production, 8. Golden Revolution:, Fruit Production, 9. Round Production:, Potato Production, 10. Silver Revolution:, Egg/ poultry production, 11. Black revolution:, Biofuel/Jatropha Production, 12. Rainbow revolution:, All sector of agriculture, 13. Prabhani revolution:, Okra production, India shares in world:, • Total geographical area: 2.4 %, 17.5%, • Population:, 15%, • Livestock:, 1.5%, • Forest:, India's position in World Agriculture:, 1. First position in:, Cashew production, • Mango production, Coconut prod! tion, • Banana production, Total pulses production, • Total irrigated area, Milk production, • Sugarcane production, Jute, & allied fibers, • Tea production, • Live stock production, 2. Second position:, • Wheat production, Rice,, • Oilseeds production, • Vegetables production, General ' , trolture, , 32
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Third position:, • Tobacco production, • Cotton production, 4. Fourth position:, • Natural Rubber (share 8.5%) of total world NR production, • Despite this India has emerged as the second largest, consumer of NR, overtaking the United States with share of, 9.6 per cent in world consumption in 2009., ✓ In coffee production India has sixth position, .( Out of total production of coffee 65-70 % is exported, , 3., , Position of Agricultural trades in India:, a. Agriculture export commodities:, • Rice > Cashew > Wheat > Tea > Tobacco, g. imports commodities:, • Vegetable oil > Cashew > Pulses > Fruits, , b., , t8,041cieu4.v, their tl, Deficiency, A (Retinol), , Effect/disease, , 131 (Thiamine), , Ben -ben (disturbance in, digestive system), Photophobia, inflamed lips,, cracks on skin/aribollavinosis, Pellagra/black tongue, , 132(Riboflavin), , (Niacin or, Nicotinamide), , B5, , B6, , (Pyridoxine), , Bi2, , (Cobalomine), , C (Ascorbic acid), , Night blindness, growth, failure, Xerophthalmia, , Degeneration of nerves, Pernicious anemia, Scurvy (soft tissues around, , the Joints become swollen, and painful), 4libti, General Agriculture, , Source, Liver is rich source,, milk, carrot, papaya,, mango etc., _, Rice polishing, leafy, veg. fish, egg, meat, _, Milk powder, fish,, pulses, , Yeast, wheat germ,, legumes, Animal food (liver,, meat, fish, egg), Aonla, guava, —, fruit, -, , _
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manganese:, , Paresis, , lod me:, , Goiter, , Cobalt:, , Coast disease, , Minerals, , Excesses, , Mo:, Fluorine, , Molybdenosis, , Selenium:, , Fluorosis, Degnala/alkali disease, , Elements:, , Disease, , Ca & Mg oxalate, Lead, , Kidney stone, Mental retardation, , Fluoride, , Fluorosis, , Arsenic, Iron, , Poisoning, Constipation or Dysentery, , Growth substances and their function:, , SN, , Hormone, , I, , Auxin, ., , IAA, , Prevent premature fruit drop, , b., , IBA, , Root formation, , NAA, 2,4-D, , Fruit thinner, prevent fruit drop, Fruit setting hormone (<20 ppm), and also used as a, herbicide (>20ppm), , ., d., , Cytokinin, 3, , Functions, Named by F.W. Went, It has apical bud dominance, inhibit, root elongation and promote cell division in tissue culture, , Gibberellins, Abscisic acid, (ABA), Ethylene, , Clormequat, (CCC), Mallic, hydrazide, Ethephone, General Agriculture, , Dormancy breaker, stimulate cell division, Cell elongation, increase fruit size, Dormancy induced, stomata closer, also called as anti, , gibberellins., Ripening of fruits, isodiametric growth of stem & roots, , Logging preventer, also known as cycocel, Growth retardant, prevent onion sprouting in storage, sold, under trade name Sproutstop, T. Name: Ethrel, Used as banana fruits ripener, 35, , A Competitive book of Agriculture
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Vitamins and enzymes:, • The term vitamin was introduced by: Funk (1912), • Vitamins are accessory food factors play vital role in, •, •, •, , •, •, , growth, nutrition and metabolic process., Fat soluble vitamin: A, D, E &K., Water soluble vitamin: B & C., Folic acid is essential for maturation of RBC (Red blood, corpuscles)., The largest concentrations of minerals are found in bones, and teeth., Calcium is essential component of all living cells, helps in, , body building., The term enzyme was coined by: W. Kuhne (1898), • Enzymes are those organic substances which are capable of, catalyzing chemical reactions in living system., Essential amino acids: (They can not be synthesized in our body), • These are ten in number: (Tricks 'TV, MILL, PATH'), • Tryptophan, Valine, Metheonine, Iso-leusine, Leucine,, Lysine, Phenyl-alanine, Arginine, Threonine, Histidine., Essential fatty acids:, • Four in number, (Remember tricks `OLLA), • Oleic acid, Linoleic acid, Linolenic acid, Arechidonic acid, Imported years related to agriculture:, 2004: International Year of Rice (OBC, Bank -08), 2005: International Year of Physics, 2006: International Year of Desert and Desertification, 2007: International Year of Water, 2008: International Year of Potato, 2009: International Year of Fiber, 2010: International Year of Biodiversity, 2011: International Year of Forest, and, : International Year of Chemistry, 2012: International Year of Co-operative, •, , General Agriculture, , 36, , A Competitive book of Agriculture
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2012: Year of Horticultural (declared by Ministry of Ag. & Food, Processing, Govt. of India)., SN, , Date, , 1, , 15th March, , 2, , 21 s1 March, , 3, , —3-611' March, , 5, , 5t June, 11th July, , 6, , 16th July, , 7, , 16th September, , 8, , 16'h October, , 9, , 4th December, , 10, , 23rd December, , , Famous day, , World Consumer Day, World Forestry Day, Rajasthan Day, World Environment Day, World Population Day, ICAR Day, Ozone Day, Word Food Day, Women in Agriculture Day, Kishan Day, birth day of Choudhary, Charan Singh, , Fertilizer Trade:, •, , •, , •, , India is meeting 85 per cent its urea requirement through, indigenous production but depends heavily on imports for, its phosphatic and potash fertilizer requirements., Farmers pay only 25 to 40 per cent of the actual cost and the, rest of the cost is borne by the Government in the form of a, subsidy, which is reimbursed to the manufactures/importers., The production of urea is estimated at 215.37 lakh tonnes in, 2010-11 and that of DAP and complexes at 39.58 lakh, , tonnes., There have been major policy initiatives in the fertilizer sector:, 1. Introduction of nutrient -based subsidy scheme with effect from, •, , 1 April 2010., , Under the nutrient based subsidy scheme (NBS), Government, has amended subsidy per kg of nutrients N, P, K and S, contained in P & K fertilizers as well as per MT of fertilizers., , Irrigation trade:, , General Agriculture, , 37, , A Competitive book of Agriculture
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•, , The total irrigation potential in the country has increased, from 81.1 million hectares in 1991-92 to 108.2 mha in, , March 2010., •, , More than 75 per cent of annual rainfall is received during, the southwest monsoon season (June -September)., , The major schemes/programmes:, 1. National Food Security Mission (NFSM):, • The NFSM was launched in Rabi 2007 with a view to, , enhancing the production of rice, wheat, and pulses by 10, mt, 8 mt, and 2 mt, respectively by the end of the Eleventh, •, , Plan., The Mission aims to increase production through area, , expansion, and, productivity;, create, employment, opportunities; and enhance the farm -level economy to, restore confidence of farmers., • The NFSM is presently being implemented in 476 identified, districts of 17 States of the country., •, A new programme under the NFSM called the Accelerated, Pulses Production Programme (A3P):, Under A3P:, ✓ 1000 block demonstrations of technology have been, launched from 2010-11., , This programme will essentially promote plant nutrients and, plant protection -centric technologies in compact blocks of, 1000 ha each for five major pulse crops, namely, tur,, moong, urad, gram, and lentil., Components/activities of NFSM:, • Demonstrations of improved package of practices., , • Demonstrations of the system of rice intensification (SRI)., • Distribution of high yielding variety seeds of rice, wheat,, and pulses and hybrid rice., • Soil ameliorants, such as gypsum/lime/micro nutrients to, restore soil fertility for higher productivity., • Integrated Pest Management (IPM)., General Agriculture, , 38, , A Competitive book of Agriculture
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• Improved farm machineries, including water -saving devices, have been distributed., • Farmers' field school (FFS) — level trainings., , • In addition, about several lacks block demonstrations have, been conducted during the 2010 kharif under the A3P., 2. Rashtriya Krishi Vikas Yojana (RKVY):, •, , •, , The RKVY was launched in 2007 with an outlay of '25,000, crore' for the Eleventh Plan to incentivize States to enhance, public investment so as to achieve a 4 per cent growth rate, in agriculture and allied sectors during the Eleventh Plan., The RKVY has emerged as the principal instrument in, financing development of agriculture and allied sectors in, the country., , •, , Its convergence with other schemes like the Mahatma Gandhi, , National Rural Employment Scheme is expected to boost, development of the agrarian economy., 3. Integrated Scheme of Oilseeds, Pulses, Oil Palm and Maize, (ISOPOM): Launched in 2004, •, The ISOPM is being implemented in 14 major States for, oilseeds and pulses, 15 for maize, and 10 for oil palm., •, The pulses component has been merged with the NFSM, with effect from 1 April 2010., • The Scheme provides flexibility to the states in, implementation based on a regionally differentiated, approach to promoting crop diversification., •, Under the Scheme, assistance is provided for purchase of, breeder seed, production of foundation seed, production and, distribution of certified seed, distribution of seed minikits,, plant protection chemicals, plant protection equipment,, weedicides, gypsum/liming, sprinkler sets, and water, carrying pipes, supply of rhizobium/ PSB culture and, improved farm implements, publicity etc., General Agriculture, , 39, , A Competitive book of Agriculture
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4. Agricultural Technology Management Agency (ATMA):, •, , At district level to operationalize the extension reforms with, the active participation of farmers/farmer groups, non-, , government organizations (NG0s), Krishi Vigyan Kendras,, Panchayati Raj Institutions and other stakeholders, operating at district level and below Up to October 2010,, 591district-level ATMAs have been established., • Gender concerns are being mainstreamed by mandating that, 30 per cent of resources on programmes and activities are, allocated for women farmers and extension functionaries., 5. The National Horticulture Mission (NHM): May. 2005, • The Ministry of Agriculture has been implementing the, centrally sponsored NHM for the holistic development of, the horticulture sector since 2005-06., •, All the States and the three Union Territories of Andaman, and Nicobar Islands. Lakshadk\ eep, and Puducherry are, , covered under the Mission except the eight north-eastern, States., •, , The latter are covered under the Horticulture Mission for the, North East and Himalayan States (HIVINEH)., •, , The per capita availability of fruits and vegetables has, increased from 391 gram/day in 2004-05 to 466 gram/day, in 2008-09., , 6. National Mission on Micro Irrigation (NMMI): 2010, • The Centrally sponsored National Mission on Micro, Irrigation was launched in June 2010 in addition to the, earlier Micro Irrigation Scheme launched in January, 2006., • The Mission is being implemented during the Eleventh Plan, period for enhancing water -use efficiency by adopting drip, , General Agriculture, , 40, , A Competitive book of Agriculture
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and sprinkler irrigation systems in all States and Union, Territories for both horticulture and agricultural crops., 7. National Bamboo Mission (NBM): November, 2004, , •, , With a view to harnessing the potential of the bamboo crop, , in the country., • The Ministry of Agriculture has been implementing the, , •, , centrally sponsored NBM in 27 States in the country, during the year 2006., The Mission aims to promote holistic growth of the, bamboo sector by adopting an area -based, regionally, differentiated strategy and to increase the area under bamboo, cultivation and marketing., , 8. Kisan Credit Card Scheme (KCCs):, • From Kbarif 2006-07 to 2008-09, farmers were receiving, crop loans up to a principal amount of' 3 lakh at 7 per cent, interest., • In the year 2009-10, Government provided an additional 1, per cent interest subvention to those farmers who repaid their, short-term crop loans as per schedule., • The Government has raised this subvention for timely, repayment of crop loans from 1 per cent to 3 percent from, the year 2010-11., • Thus the effective rate of interest for such farmers will be 4, per cent per annum., 9. National Agricultural Insurance Seheni:2 (NAIS):, •, The NAIS is being implemented in the country from rabi, 1999-2000 season., •, Minimum indemnity level of 70 per cent instead of 60 per, cent, and private -sector insurers with adequate infrastructure, allowed (at present, ICICI-Lombard, 1FFC0-Toltio and, , Cholamandalam-MS)., General Agriculture
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0.Weather Based Crop Insurance Scheme (WBCIS):, •, Announced in the Union Budget 2007 in selected States and, Union Territories., The WBCIS is intended to provide insurance protection to, farmers against adverse weather incidences, which are, , •, , deemed to unfavourably impact crop production., It has the advantage of settling claims within the shortest, , •, , possible time., , 11.Kisan Call Centre:, •, , The Kisan Call Centre scheme was launched in 21, Jan 2004, to provide agricultural information to the farming, community through toll -free telephone lines., A country -wide common 11 -digit number-1800-1801551—has been allocated for KCCs., Replies to the queries of the farming community are being, provided in 22 local languages., Calls are attended to from 6.00 am to 10.00 pm on all seven, days of the week., , •, •, •, , 12.Agri-clinic and Agri -business Centres:, • The Agri -clinic and Agri -business Centres Scheme was, launched in 2002 to provide extension services to farmers, on payment basis through setting up of economically viable, •, •, •, , self—employment ventures., Selected trainees are provided agri-preneurship training., NABARI) monitors the credit support to Agri -Clinics, through commercial banks., , Provision of credit -linked back -ended subsidy at 33 per, cent of the capital cost of the project funded througkb, loan as well as full interest subsidy for the first tw, the bank credit has rept)
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13.Protection of Plant Varieties and Farmers' Rights (PPV&FR):, • Authority established in November 2005 at New Delhi has, been mandated to implement provisions of the PPV&FR, Act, 2001., 14.Buffer Stock:, •, , The stock position of food grains in the Central pool as on 1, October, 2010 is 46.2 million tonnes comprising 18.4, million tonnes of rice and 27.8 million tonnes of wheat., , •, , FC1 has Buffer stock, Oct. 2009: 16.2 mt., , UNIT -2, , .Agriculture, The term agriculture is derived from the two Latin words:, Ager =, Soil, Cultura, Cultivation, • Hence Cultivation of soil is called agriculture., Sustainable agriculture/eco-farming:, • Sustainable agriculture is one which makes of use of low cost, inputs, lower amounts of chemical fertilizers: maintain soil, fertility and ecological harmony (FAO, 1989)., • It is also known as ecological farming/natural farming or, organic farming/permaculture., Shifting cultivation/land rotation/jhuming:, • The productivity of soil is lost due to cultivation of same, crop generally rice on the same forest land year after year, hence. the crop is shifted to other burnt land., • It causes soil erosion., • It practiced in Jharkhand, MP
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•, , It refers to the prediction of mansoon season (rainfall),, , based on analysis of weather data of pre-mansoon period and, managing crops accordingly., Precision farming/site specific farming:, • The target specific use of inputs (like seeds, fertilizers,, pesticides etc.) for crop production according to crop, requirement on localized basis., Advantages of precision farming:, • Minimized the cost of production, • Maintains ecological balance, • Conserve resources, Ideotype (modal plants):, • The concept of Ideotype was given by Donald in 1968., • The single plant would give the better result in a group when, the crop has at least competition with the same type of the, •, , crop., Ideotype is the model plant which may be defined as "a, , biological modal which is expected to perform or behave in a, predictable manner within a defined environment., Terra -forming:, • To develop the mars (planet) according to the earth's, environment is called terra- forming., • At present bacteria and plants are being developed by, , creating the environmental condition of mars on the earth., Hydroponics:, • Growing of plants under 5oil less condition is called, hydroponics., • Solution culture is being used for raising flowers and, vegetables at homes., Response curve:, • Suggested by Holliday, 1960:, • The relationship between plant population & yield, Two types of response curve., I . Asymptotic response:, General Agriculture, , 44, , 1
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•, , Where entire dry matter is the economic product as in the case, of fodder crops or most of dry matter as in tobacco., • It means increase plant density with increase yield e.g. cereal, crops for fodder., 2. Parabolic: after reaching a level, increase plant density with, decrease yield (wide space between plants cereals/pulses for, grain purpose., A close functional relation between input & output:, • Quadratic response: y, =, a + bx + cx 2, • Linear response: y, =, a + bx, • Mitscherlish equation: y, =, y + a (1-10-")., Or, y, =, dy/dx = (A -y) c, Zero tillage:, • Father of zero tillage Glubler B. Triplets (USA), 1950, • Primary tillage completely avoided., • Secondary tillage restricted to seedbed preparation in the, row zone only., • Keeps 50-100% of residue on soil surface., • Before sowing, herbicides Paraquat, Glyphosate are used, for weed control., • Till planting is adopted., Till planting: It is the practice in zero tillage including four, operations., 1 Cleaning the crop row, Opening of soil for seed insertion, 1 Placing of seed, 1 Covering the seed, • These functions are accomplished in one tillage operation., , Minimum tillage:, • Can be defined as a method aimed at reducing tillage to the, minimum necessary for ensuring a good seedbed, rapid, germination, satisfactory crop stand and favorable growing, conditions., General Agriculture, , 45, , A competitive book ett,Aft:
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•, , Started in USA, because of high cost of tillage due to steep, rise in oil price in 1974., • Tillage operation is done only for seed bed preparation., •, Keep 30-50 % crop residues on soil surface., • It improves soil condition due to in situ decomposition of, plant residue., • Weed control can be done by herbicide, Global warming:, • Surface of the earth is warmth from sun heats., • Earth absorbs most of sun energy but reflects back some, energy in the form of infra red radiation., • Green house gases e.g. CO2 (55%), Methane (25%), CFC, (11%) and N 2 0 (4%)., •, , These gases are present in atmosphere. transmit the, infrared radiation and reflect back to the earth., , •, , This reflected energy falls on the earth surface and keeps it, , warmer., • This is called global warming or green house effect., Source of green house gases:, •, In developed countries: Emission from automobiles &, factories contains CFCs., • In developing countries: Deforestation cases rise in CO2, level, methane gas from paddy field & livestock and nitrous, oxide from N base fertilizer., Effect of global warming on world and agriculture:, • Increase overall temperature on earth e.g. earth's surface, temperature has increased 1.4° F in first on Century ( It has, been forecasted that 5 °F will rise in next Century)., • Cause changes in climate tremendously., • Results in melting of ice in polar region., • Increase sea level resulting in submerging of coastal areas., •, , Drought in warmer region., , A Competitive book of Agriculture, , General Agriculture, , 46
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3. AGRONOMY, important points:, ,./ Mycorrhiza is a symbiotic association, between:, V VAM: Vascular Arboscular yycorrhyza, is used to:, V Cereals are deficient in which amino acid:, V Amino acid which is deficient in legumes:, V Power tiller is most suitable for the, cultivation of:, V Ammonium polyphosphate contains:, , Fungus & roots of, higher plants, , solubilizing, plant roots, Lysine, P, , in, , Methionine, Paddy, , 15% N & 62 %, P205. (RPSC, ,40-09), Viability of seeds., , •7 Tz (tetrazolium) test is done for:, , nursery of rice, level of water is 5 cm, maintained:, V The optimum depth of puddling in rice is: 5 cm., , V, , In wet, , V Ultra violet radiations are absorbed by:, V First Indian director of IARI was:, V The most critical stage of irrigation in, wheat is:, ,, _, v Jhum cultivation mostly found in:, V. Objective of sustainable agriculture is:, V The plants growing in salt water are, known as:, V Crop canopy temperature is measured by:, v Reclamation disease due to deficiency of:, v Hormone related to drought tolerance is:, V Contribution of live stock to agriculture, , Ozone layer., , Dr. B. Vishvanath., CR1 stage (21 days, after sowing), Eastern, India., To, , part, , maintain, , ecological balance, Halophytes, Infra -red, thermometer., Copper, Abscisic acid, 29.7 %, , GDP:, 1, , Hormone used as an herbicide:, Agronomy, , 47, , of, , 2, 4-D (>20 PPM), A Competitive Book of Agriculture
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V Element available in both anion and, , cation ions is:, V Dormancy breaking hormone is:, V Ring worm disease is caused by:, V Wind which is cause rainfall in Tamil, Nadu:, V Stress hardening in plants can be achieved, by:, V Maximum allowable biurate content of, Urea is:, V Carbon content in organic matter:, V Nitrogen biofertilizer used for wheat:, V Nitrogen biofertilizer used for sorghum:, I Vertical mulch is used in soils:, V Criteria of essentiality were given by:, , Nitrogen, PILD-11), Cytokine., Fungus., North, monsoon, ABA., , (LAR',, , East, , 1.5%., , _, , 58 %., Azatobacter., Azospirillum, Black cotton soils., I Arnon & Stout,, 1939., , V The optimum spacing for wheat is:, V The nontraditional area for cultivating, V, I, V, V, V, V, V, V, V, V, V, V, , 22.5 em(line to line), Eastern India., , wheat is:, Major P fertilizer in India in India is:, DAP., Very few poor (BPL) peoples are in:, _ Punjab., Very large number of BPL peoples are in: Bihar, Bio fertilizer more suited for sugarcane is: Azatobacter, _, 3 cm., Depth of sowing of soybean seed:, _, First variety of rice introduced in India is: TN -1 (1964-65), Brassica juncea., Indian mustard known as:, Ammonium nitrate., —Explosive fertilizer is:, Alluvial soil., Most prominent soil group of India:, 12 %., _, In SSP sulphur contains:, Zn., Micro nutrient deficient in Indian soils:, Spike tooth harrow is a type of Secondary tillage, , implement:, Most, widely used for correcting soil, V, Agronomy, , 48, , Lime., , A Competitive Book of Agriculture, , _, _
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acidity:, •, ../ Diara cultivation method is followed in:, V National Seed Act passed in:, , Cucurb its., 10:1, 1966., , ,./ National Seed Corporation in:, , 1963., , .4 Root promoting hormones:, _, 1 Flower and fruit setting hormone:, , IBA, NAA, 15 %, , ../ C: N ratio of organic matter is:, , ./, , Bench terracing is done when slope is, more than:, , 1 k Mass per unit volume is called:, , Bulk density., , V, , , Disk plough is used when the soil is:, .( First man made cereal is:, , Tough., Triticale., V Cheapest N contains fertilizer is:, Urea., \ .7 First product of urea hydrolysis:, Ammonium, carbamate., was set up on the Siva, 1 NABARD, Raman, recommendation of:, committee, 1 Free living nitrogen fixing organism is:, Azatobacter, 1 The fruit of mustard is known as:, Siliqua., 1 Supplemental irrigation is known as:, Life, saving, irrigation, Major, agricultural, import, in, India, is:, Edible, oil, V, Super rice., V Lunishree is a variety of:, Monoecious, V Plants with male and female flower are:, New Delhi., 1 National biodiversity board is situated at:, Wind force, N, 7 Beautfort scale is used to measure:, 1 Die back of shoots occur due to deficiency Copper, of:, V Grey spots on leaves occur due to Manganese., deficiency of:, Nitrogen., V Indian soils are mainly deficient of:, Red, rot, of, i Most destructive disease of sugarcane is:, sugarcane., Agronomy, , 49, , A Competitive Book of Agriculture
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V, , Potatoes are borne on:, , Stolons, , 1, , Potato tubers are a modified form of:, , V, , Sugarcane sowing in trench method to, , _Stem, , Lodging, , prevent:, , Biennial, V Boron is harmful for plants having More than 3 ppm, concentration:, V, V, V, V, V, V, V, , V, V, , Kaolin is a type of antitranspirants:, Cycocel (CCC) is a:, Family of sesame:, Family of jute:, Which family of crop is more exhaustive:, Origin of maize:, Origin of soybean:, Origin of tobacco:, Highest area of summer maize:, Indian Journal of Agriculture Sciences is, published by:, Yellowing of tea leaves occurs due to the, deficiency of:, The green house gas that released from, paddy field is:, The edible part of sweet potato (Ipomoea, batata) is:, Carbon dating technique is used to, determine age of:, The irrigation method which is suitable, for saline soil:, Element contributing to the disease &, drought resistance:, Element involved in energy transfer and, storage in plants:, , Agronomy, , ., , V Maximum productivity among cereals:, , V, , _, , For seed purpose carrot is grown as:, , V, , V, V, , _, , 50, , Maize, Reflecting type, , Growth retardants, Pedaliaceae, Tilliaceae, Graminae, Mexico, China, Mexico, , Bihar, ICAR, Sulphur, , Methane, Adventitious root, Fossils, Flooding method, Potassium, _, Phosphorus, , A Competitive Book of Agriculture
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V Nutrients are termed as essential elements, , 16 nutrients, , for plants:, Apical bud dominance is caused by which, , V, , Auxin, , hormone:, , Highest consumption of k fertilizer:, , Maharashtra, , Highest production of cereals in world:, , Wheat, , V, , Seed rate of sorghum is:, , 9-12 kg/ha, , V, , De suckering is a process of a crop:, , Tobacco., , V, , The weed, which was first biological, , Lantana camera, , controlled:, V, V, V, V, _, V, V, , State, where seed law are adopted:, , Karnataka, Soil moisture tension directly measured Tensiometer, by:, Evapo-transpiration measured by:, Lysimeter, Parshall flame is used for measurement Water flow, of:, Flooding irrigation method commonly Rice, used for:, Fertilizer application through irrigation Fertigation, known as:, , One of most important cultural practice in Puddling, rice field:, V Post harvest losses for cereals accounts 10%, , V, _, , for:, V Saltation is a process of:, v Irrigation efficiency of loamy soils:, V In saline soils the methods of irrigation:, V Sowing pattern used in dry land:, V Most efficient method of irrigation is:, .v Extensively grown pulse crop in India:, v Relative humidity measured by:, V Crops growing for conserve soil moisture, , known as:, Agronomy, , 51, , Wind erosion, 70% (highest), Flood method, Broadcasting, Drip irrigation, Chick pea, Psychrometer, Mulch crops, .. , ., , _
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.4 Example of erosion resistant crop:, , Maize, Cow pea, , .4 The, , Fluchloralin, , Example of erosion permitting crop:, , /, , herbicide, , used, , as, , pre -plant, , incorporation is:, .4 Example of C4 weed is:, .4 \ The botanical name of two rowed barley, is:, .4 The name of six rowed barley is:, , Common, lamsquarter, Hordeum distichon, _, , Hordeum vulgare, , Maize 1957, .4 What is the optimum plant population for 10,000 plants/ha, , .4 First AICRP was started in which crop:, , I, .1, I, V, I, I, I, I, I, V, V, .4, V, , Bt -cotton:, Dropsy disease in human being is caused, by which weed:, Crop is suitable for having PH 4-6:, Red hemoglobin in root nodule is, responsible for:, Annual rainfall in Rajasthan:, Aminophilic plants:, Country having 100% of the cropped area, under irrigation:, Country, having highest, irrigation, efficiency:, Country having highest irrigated area:, In remote sensing optical wave lengths, from:, India is the first country to develop and, use of hybrids in:, Crop having maximum area under, irrigation:, Most extensively fruit grown crop in the, world:, Pusa giant is the variety of both:, Agronomy, , ,, , Argemone Mexicana, Rice, tea and potato, Transport of 02, 575 mm, Sugarcane and rice, Egypt, , Israel, India, 0.3 to 15 urn are, used, Pear millet (HB-1 ', in 1965, Wheat, M
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grass., , /, , Type of soil water which is most useful, , Capillary water., , -, , for plants:, V At equator day and nights are always:, Equal., V Atmosphere pressure always decreases, , Altitude., , with:, V Horizontal heat transfer from warmer, , area to cooler area:, V Vertical heat transfer from warmer to, , Cloth line effect, Oasis effect, , cooler crop area:, V The enzyme of nitrogen reduction is:, Nitrogenase, V The component of nitrate reduction is Molybdenum., the:, V Major of field crops require for optimum, , 6.5-7.0 p', , growth is:, V Hence; cultivated mostly crops are:, , Acidic in nature, (IFFCO- 09), V Depth of water required by a crop is Delta, known as:, V Area irrigated by one cusec discharge of Duty, water is:, V Period in days for which irrigation is Base period, V, V, V, V, , supplied to a crop is:, Rancidity in sunflower oil due to:, Varieties of black gram:, Famous variety of moth bean is:, Elite varieties of moong bean are:, 0.1% solution in 500 liters of water is:, , Oxidation., T-9. Pant U-19, RMO-40, Pusa, baisakhi., SML-668, 500 ml (RPSc. AO09/SRF-09), , V, , V, V, , BioclimatiC low proposed by, Chemical safeners also known, , hei bicide antidote e g, Crop which has highest K up take, Agronomy, , Hopkins, as NA (it
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The low pressure area near the equator is Doldrums, , \I, , called:, .4 Triacontanol is a growth stimulant Leaves of Lucerne, , tI, , obtains from:, Tillage increases the water holding capacity and infiltration of, , I, , soil but reduce bulk density., Wet land plough is smallest of the wooden ploughs it used in, , 1, , puddle soil & efficiency is 0.1 ha for 8 hours., The sprinkler system of irrigation provides protection from, cold by the release of latent heat of fusion., Splitting open of a pod or fruit in characteristic manner at, maturity is known as Dehiscent e.g. pods of pulse., , ✓, ✓, , ✓, ✓, •, •, ✓, V, ✓, •, I, , Continuous consumption of Lathyrus causes a disease known as, lathyrism as its grains contains BOAA (Benzo-oxalin acitic acid),, a neurotoxin., Fertilizer is preferred to grow succeeding crop in green manure, soil: Phosphatic, The cattle consuming grasses of low magnesium content suffer, from hypomagnesaemia, commonly called as 'Grass Tatany'., Weather is a state or condition of atmosphere at a given place at, a given instant of time., Recently scientists separated germs in maize corn for, manufacturing: Contraceptives, India's rank first in production and consumption of sugar in the, world., The tobacco contributes the largest excise revenue among, agricultural commodities in India., India is the only country to have developed and grown hybrid, cotton commercially., Karnataka is the largest producer of coffee in the country., China is the largest producing and consuming country of tobacco, in the world, India is the third position of production of tobacco, in world., , Agronomy, , 54, , A Competitive Book of Agriculture
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✓, , Phenyl mercuric acetate (PMA) is a chemical used in agriculture, crops in order to: Reduce transpiration, Jowar is known as: Camel crop/Kings of coarse grains, India is the second country after china to have commercialized, the hybrid rice technology., HD 2329 wheat variety contributed maximum producing during, green revolution in India., Plant rectangularity is: Plant to plant distance/row to row, distance., In water erosion 3 m deep, more than 18 m wide gully is known, as: Small gully (G 2), 3-9 m deep, width 18 m or more, side slope 8-15 4Y0 is known, as: Medium gully (G 3), The direction from which the winds are coming called as: Wind, ward side., Agronomic measures used to reduce erosion where slope is: Less, , ✓, •, ✓, ✓, ✓, ✓, ✓, ✓, , than 2%., ✓, , Bench terracing usually practiced on slopes ranging from: 16-33, , ✓, , The highest award presented to an agricultural scientist in the, country: Rafi ahmad kidwai award., Over the years the contribution of agriculture to GDP of Indian, economy has been: Decreasing, Agro climatic regional planning in India was initiating in which, five year plan: 71h five year plan (1988), Nitrogen fixation in rice field is carried out by blue green algae, with: water fern Azolla., The pattern of planting has maximum plant population: Cubodial, , ✓, ✓, ✓, ✓, ✓, , pattern, Cultivations of such crops which have different natural habit and, zero competition is known as: Parallel cropping, , ✓, , The variety of wheat which is resistant to all the three rusts is:, , Chou lerma, •V In sugarcane, taking of ratoon crop is advisable only: Once time, Agronomy, , 55, , A Competitive Book of Agriculture
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Cultivation of two or more than two crops of different heights, simultaneously on a certain piece of land in a certain period is, called: Multistoried cropping, Nursery area required for seedling of rice one hectare field is:, , I, , I, , 0.10 ha, Tip burn of paddy is due to reduced 02and N2under submerged, condition., Maize leaf develop red and purple color due to the deficiency of:, , 1, , Phosphorus, V The size of Thomson seedless grape increased by the hormone:, , GA3, , Center of ori2n:, • Vavilon, , c 8 center of origin and 3 sub center., , Major crops and their origin place:, Crop, , Origin, , Rice, Sugarcane, Wheat, Gram, , S. E. Asia(Burma), New Guinea, S. W. Asia (Turkey), S. W. Asia, , Maize, Tobacco, , Origin, , Crop, Tea, , China, , Soybean, , China, , Mustard, , China, , Cow pea, , Africa, , Cotton, Brinjal, , India, India, , Moong, , S. America (Mexico), C. America, Brazil, India, , Arhar, Jowar, , Africa, Africa, , Potato, , S. America (Peru), , Bajra, , Africa, , Groundnut, , Terms and related agronomists:, ,/, V, , Terms/field, Irrigation Agronomy, , Cropping System, , V Irrigation Engineering, V SRNF(slow, release, fertilizer), V CRI in wheat:, Agronomy, , Agronomist, Dr. N.G. Dastane, Dr. S.S. Bains, A.M. Michele, nitrogen Dr. Rajendra Prasad, B. L. Bhardwaj, 56, , A Competitive Book of Agriculture, , _, , _
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Functional nutrient, V Essentiality of nutrient, , /, , V, V, V, V, V, V, V, V, V, V, V, , Nicholus, 1963, , Arnon & Stout 1939, (refined by Arnon 1954), Wilcox, Parihar et al 1974, , Agrobiology, IW/CPE Ratio, Transplanting in pearl millet, , Coefficient of effectiveness, H-4 hybrid of cotton, Jaya (first Indian variety of rice), Low of minimum, Low of limiting factor, Increase yield N low, Leaf area index, Nutrient mobility concept, V A" value concept, V Harvesting index, .1 Photoperiodism concept, V Thermoperiodism, V Vernalization, , Dr. Gautum, Nichiporovic (1950), Dr. C.T. Patel (GUJ.) 1970, Dr. Shastry, J.V. Liebig in 1840, Black man (1905), Wilcox (1929), Watson (1947), Brays R.H, , Dean & Friend (for P, Donald, Gardener & Allard 1920, F. Went, , Lysenko, Alexandrian Fleming 1939, Antibiotics (Penicillin), Bacillus, radicicola, (now Beijerinck 1890, Rhizobium), J.B. Lawes & J.H. Gilbert, V Rothamsted experimental station, (1843), , V, V, , Founders/father of different fields:, V Father of field plot experiment:, V, V, V, V, V, V, , Father of pedology:, Father of golden revolution:, Father of tillage/weed science:, Father of soil testing technique:, Father of soil microbiology:, Father of agriculture chemistry:, , 57, , az, icq, , J. B. Boussingault, V.V. Dokuchaiv, Dr. K.L. Chadda, Jethrotull, , M. L. Troug, S. N. Winogradsky, J. V. Liebig, , A Competitive Book of Agriculture
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AGRONOMY, The term derived from of two Greek words:, •, , Agros, , •, , Nomos =, , =, , Field, to manage, , Definition:, • Can be defined as a branch of agricultural sciences that deal, , with methods which provide favorable environment to the, •, •, , crop for higher productivity., Indian agriculture is predominantly of the subsistence type, Peter Decresenzi (1230-1307 A.D.) He collected many, literatures related to agronomy in his book "Opus Rural/urn, Kamo Durum" for the first time. He known as 'Father of, , agronomy'., • Van Helmont (1577-1644 A.D.) Concluded that the main, principle of vegetation is water., • Jethrotull (1674-1741 A.D.) He published a book 'Horse, Hoeing Husbandry' and the words 'Weeds' and 'Zero, tillage' firstly given by him. He known as 'Father of weed, science'., • Aurthor Young (1741-1820 A.D.) Conducted pot culture, experiments to increase the yield of crops by applying several, materials like poultry dung, litter, gunpowder etc. published, his work in 46 volumes as' Annals of Agriculture'., • A truly scientific approach to farming was started in 1840, by Justus von Liebig., important concepts:, 1 Leaf area index:, • Concept developed by Watson, 1948, • LAI =, Total leaf area, Ground area, Agronomy, , 58, , A Competitive Book of Agriculture
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2. Land equivalent ratio (LER):, •, , It means the relative land area occupied by a sole crop that is, , required to produce the yield achieved in intercropping., •, , Yield of inter crop (a + b), , LER =, , Yield of sole crop (a), here., • a = Sole crop, • b = Inter crop, • When LER > 1: Intercropping is beneficial., •, , E.g.- LER: 1.10 means mixture gives 10% more yield., , 3. Cropping intensity:, Total cropping area, •, , C.1. =, , •, , Net cultivated area, Cropping intensity of India is nearly: 135%., , x100, , 4. Crop rotation:, • In crop rotation land is fixed but crop is rotated year after, year on same land., • 1.e. after cultivation of cereals should be taken pulse crop in, next year., • It maintains and improves soil fertility., • It checks the soil erosion and conserves moisture., • The incidence of harmful pathogens, insect -pest, nematode, and weeds which is associated with particular crop can be, , managed., 5. Crop rotation intensity:, • C.R.I. =, No. of crop in crop rotation, •, •, , x 100, No. of year in crop rotation, Crop rotation for I year: Rice - Pea (200%)., Crop rotation for 2 years: Groundnut - Wheat - Sugarcane, (150%)., , Agronomy, , 59, , A Competitive Book of .4griculture
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•, , Crop rotation for 3 years: Paddy - Potato - Sugarcane - Arhar, - Wheat (166%)., 6. Cropping system:, •, , It refers to the cropping patterns used on a farm and their, interaction with farm resources, associated farm enterprises, and the available component technology., , 7. Harvesting index:, •, , The efficient utilization or assimilation of CO2 in the form of, photosynthesis is expressed in terms of harvest index. H.I. is, also called coefficient of effectiveness., H.I. =, Economic yield (grain), , •, , x 100, , Biological yield (grain + straw), • Biological yield x K = Economic yield, • Where K is constant and is expressed as the coefficient of, effectiveness or harvest index., • H.I. is similar to partitioning coefficient., 8. Coefficient of effectiveness:, • C. E. =, Sink/Source x 100., • Source: Parts of the plant where photosynthesis occurs,, generally leaves., • Sink: Where photosynthesis accumulates, generally grain is, the sink but may be exceptions viz, stem in potato, roots in, sugar beet and leaves in Palak is the sink., 9. Sorghum sickness:, • The stubbles of sorghum takes a long time to decompose, due to wide C: N ratio hence, during the process of, , •, , decomposition soil nitrogen gets blocked or temporally, immobilized, affecting the growth of succeeding crop by, showing early nitrogen deficiency symptoms due to wide C/N, ratio of sorghum residue., To reduce sorghum effect, 25 °A more nitrogen is applied at, the time of first fertilizer dose of succeeding crop., , Agronomy, , A Competitive
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Unit -2, , L. 1, , Dry land agriculture:, • Means cultivation of crops entirely under Rainfed condition., a. Dry farming:, • Cultivation of crops in areas where annual rainfall is less, than 750 mm., • Crop failure due to prolonged dry spells during crop period, is most common., •, , Dry farming is practiced in arid regions with the help of, moisture conservation practices., • Alternate land use system is suggested in this region., b. Dry land farming:, • Cultivation crops in areas where annual rainfall is more than, 750 mm but less than 1150 mm is called dry land farming., • The soil moisture conservation measure is the key for dry, land farming practice in semi -arid regions., • Drainage facility may be required especially in black soils., c. Rainfed farming:, • Means cultivation of crops in regions where annual rainfall is, more than 1150 mm is called as rain fed farming., • This farming is practiced in humid regions., Rainfed farming, Dryland farming, SN Constituent, >800, <800 mm, 1, Rainfall (mm), Enough, PET< P, Shortage, PET > P, 2, Moisture, availability, to, crop, >200 days, Growing season <200 days, 3, Arid, sub arid & sub Humid & sub humid, Growing region, 4, humid, Or, Single, or mixed Double, 5, Cropping system, lntercropping, cropping, 6 _, Wind, &, Water Water erosion, Constraints, erosion, , Agronomy
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1 Aiwa -climatic regional planning:, • It was initiated in 1988 by the Planning Commission under, the Seventh Five Year Plan., , •, , Regional planning was come into force on the basis of agro., climatic factors for balanced regional growth., Planning commission is headed by Prime Minister of India., , •, , 2. Agro-climatic zones:, • Agro-climatic zones are classified on the basis of criteria of, homogeneity in agro-characteristics such as rainfall,, , temperature, soil, topography, water resources and cropping, system., •, , According to planning commission India has been divided, , into 15 agro-climatic zones., According to NARP/ICAR India has divided into 131 agro, climatic zones., a. The trans-gangetic plain zone:, • It consists of Punjab, Haryana, Union Territories of Delhi and, Chandigarh and Ganganagar district of Rajasthan., • It has highest irrigated area, highest net sown area, high, cropping intensity and high ground water utilization., 3. Agro-ecological region:, • Agro-ecological region is the land unit cut out of agro, climatic region when superimposed on land form and the kind, •, , •, , of soils and soil conditions that act as modifiers to climate, and length of growing period., According to NBSS&LUP India has been divided into 21, , agro ecological zones., According to ICAR ago -ecological zones are divided in to 8, zones., 4. Drought:, • As a situation occurring in any area in a year when annual, rainfall is less than 75 % of the normal is known as drought., •, , Agronomy, , 62, , A Competitive Book of Agriculture
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•, , When deficiency of rainfall is above 50% of the normal,, called severe drought., 5. Moisture Availability Index (MAI):, • It is the ratio between rainfalls (weekly/monthly) at 50 %, probability level to potential evapotranspiration of the, corresponding period., • MM Rainfall at 50 % probability/PET, 6. Evapo-transpiration (ET):, • Soil moisture is the most limiting factor in dry land, agriculture., • About 60-70% of the rainfall is lost through evaporation., •, •, , The evapo-transpiration is the evaporation from the soil, surface and transpiration from the plant surface., ET losses can be reduced by use of mulches,, , antitranspirants and wind breaks., a. Anti -transparent:, • Materials are applied to plant surface to reduce transpiration, from the plant., •, •, , •, , •, , Anti -transparent reduce photosynthesis., Hence, their use should be limited to save the crop from death, under severe moisture stress., They have some practical use in nurseries and horticultural, crops., Anti-transparents are mainly four types:, , •, (i) Stomata closing type:, " • They reduce water loss through closing stomata., • E.g. Phenyl mercuric acetate (PMA @ 104 ), Atrazine, and C./2 is also an effective anti-transpirant., (ii) Film forming:, • Checks transpiration loss due to formation of thin film, which act as physical barrier., • E.g. Mobileaf, hexadecanol, silicone, oils, waxes., , (iii)Reflecting type:, Agronomy
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•, •, , These chemicals reflect the radiation and reduce leaf, temperature., Application of kaolin @ 5% reduces transpiration losses., , (iv) Growth retardants:, • These chemicals reduce shoot growth and increase root, growth and thus enable the plants to resist drought., • They also induces stomata closing e.g. Cycocel (CCC)., b. Wind breaks and shelterbelts:, • Wind breaks are such structures which break the wind flow, and reduce wind speed., •, While shelterbelts are rows of trees or shrubs planted across, the wind direction for protection of crop against wind., •, Wind break & shelterbelt provides the protective shelter, against desiccating winds to the extent of 5-10 times the, height of tall tree on windward side and up to 30 times on, leeward side., 7. Agro-forestry:, •, Agro-forestry is a sustainable land management system, which increases the use of land combines the production of, •, , crops, fruits, forest plants and or animals., It is also known as tree -crop planting system., , Components of agro forestry:, a. Agri -silviculture: The growing of agricultural crops along with, the forest crops is known as Agri -silviculture., • Agriculture crops + Forest crops (silviculture)., b. Sylvo-pastoral system: Forests are managed for the production, of wood as well as for rearing of domesticated animals., • Silviculture + Pasture management., c., , Agro-sylvo-pastoral system:, , • Apiculture crops + Forest crops + Pasture management., Agri. Horti- silvicultural system:, • Agriculture crops + Horticulture Silviculture., e. Agri-Silvi-Aquaculture System:, • Agriculture crops + Forest crop + Fish Production., , d., , Agrono m y, , 64
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Land capability classification:, • On the basis of capability or limitations, the lands are, grouped into eight classes by U.S. Soil conservation service., • These classes divided into two major groups., 1. Lands suitable for cultivation:, • Such lands have four classes., • But for the regular cultivation, only first three classes viz., I, II, III are suitable., 2. Land not suitable for cultivation:, •, , Remaining four classes are not capable of supporting, cultivation of crops., • These lands are used, for growing grasses, forestry and, supporting wild life., , a. Class!:, 1, , It has no limitation, good for intensive crop cultivation., Such lands need only crop management practices like, fertilizer, manures, crop rotation etc. to maintain their, productivity., , Example of class I soils are alluvial soils of Indo-gangatic, plains., b. Class H:, 1 It has some limitations such as gentle slope, moderate, erosion hazard, slightly alkali or saline conditions which, reduce choice of crops., I Hence require moderate conservation tactics like strip, cropping, contour tillage, crop rotation etc., • Example: deep red and black soils., C. Class HI:, • Have severe limitations like steep slope, high erosion, hazard, slow water permeability and restricted root zone, 1 Fertility status of such soils is poor., • Requiring special conservation measures., I Examples; shallow red soils, slightly saline black soils., Agronomy, , 65, , A Competitive Book of Arldeoltore
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Class IV:, , d., , Very severe limitations on choice of crops., I Suitable for occasional cultivation., I Mainly use for pasture/hay., 1 Example: shallow soils, saline soils, alkaline soils., Class V:, •/ Stony or rocky soils and pond area where drainage is not, , e., , possible., I, , Mainly used for grazing and forestry., E.g. Arid and rocky soils., , f., , Class VI, , g., , I Have some limitations on use for grazing/forestry., Class VII:, 1 Severe limitation on use for grazing/forestry., , h. Class: YUI:, 34 Extremely rough land, not suitable for any kind of crop, 1, , production., It is restricted to wild life, aesthetic purpose and watershed, protection., E.g. Sandy beaches, river washes etc., , Soil conservation measures:, 1. Agronomic measures:, • Adopted where slope is less than 2% and erosion problems, are not severe., • It includes contour cultivation, tillage, mulching, and strip, cropping., a. Contour cultivation:, • Cultivation of crops by sowing (ploughing) across the slope., • It conserves soil, soil fertility and water., b. Mulching:, • Mulch is any material applied on the soil surface to check, evaporation and improve soil water., • It is most important tactics to conservation of soil, and reduce erosion for agriculture in dry rev, Agronomy, , 66
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•, , E.g. Crop residues, leaves, manures, polythene films etc., , c. Strip cropping:, •, , System of cropping in which long and narrow strips of, , erosion resisting crops (close growing crops) are alternated, with strips of erosion permitting crops., 2. Mechanical measures:, • Adopted to supplement the agronomical practices and when, land slope is more than 2 %., • It includes following practices., a. Contour bunding:, •, , Contour bunding is adopted up to 6% slope of land and used, in arid and semi arid areas with high infiltration and, , permeability., b. Graded bunding:, • Recommended in areas receiving rainfall of more than 800, mm per year., • In general bunding is suitable for lands having slopes from, 2-10 %, •, Contour and graded bunding are mostly used in India., c. Sub -soiling:, • Breaking of hardpan of soil by the sub soiler at 30-60 cm, , depth and 90-180 cm interval., d. Broad Bed and furrow (BBF) system:, • Suitable for managing rainwater in deep black soils where, , surface drainage during the monsoon period is a problem., e. Bench terracing:, • Adopted in lands where slope ranging from 16-33% on steep, , slopping and undulating land., f. Zing terracing:, • Adopted in lands with 3 -10 % slopes., • Zing terraces are constructed in medium to deep soils in, moderate to high rainfall areas., g. Vegetative barriers:, Agronomy
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• These are closely spaced plantations, usually a few rows of, , grasses or shrubs grown along contours fro erosion control., • Khus (veniveria zelanica) is the most suitable plant for this, purpose., h. Vertical mulching:, • Digging narrow trenches across the slope at intervals and, placing the straw or crop residues in these trenches., • It is mostly practiced in coffee gardens., Unit -5, CLIMATE, Weather: a sate or condition of atmosphere at a given place and at a, , given time., Atmosphere:, ,4 It is a colourless, tasteless and odourless mixture of gases that, , surround the earth., '7 It extends up to a height of about 1600 km., However 99 per cent of total mass of the atmosphere is within, 40 km from the earth., Structure of atmosphere: Based on vertical temperature differences, I. Troposphere:, • It is the lower layer of atmosphere, • Extending up to a height of 8 to 18 km from the earth surface., (RPSC, AA0-09)., , •, , 2., , Temperature decreases with increase in altitude at the rate, of 6 'V /km., • It influences earth climate., • It is dense part of atmosphere, contains 85 per cent of the, atmosphere's mass., • All weather phenomena like clouds, rain, mist, fog, dew etc., occur in troposphere. (JAR!, Ph. D -09), Stratosphere:, •, •, , It lies beyond the height of 8 to 18 km extending up to 50 km., Warmest layer, Uniform temperature with altitude., , Agronomy, , 68, , A Competitive Book of Agriculture
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•, , It is the actual seat of most of the photochemical reactions in, air., • Presence of Ozone layer, hence also called ozonosphere, 3. Mesosphere:, •, , It lies above the stratosphere; a height of 50 km extending up, to 80 km from the earth surface., • Cold region., • Strong decrease in temperature with increase in altitude, 4. Thermosphere:, • It is the outermost layer called exosphere., • From earth surface extending a height of 80 km up to 1600, km., • The lower layer of thermosphere is called ionosphere., • Long distance radio communication is made possible through, this ionized layer., • Temperature increase with altitude., I. Composition of atmospheric air:, Volume %, Gases, 78.08, Nitrogen, 20.95, Oxygen, 0.93 (RPSC, AA 0-09), Argon, 0.03, Carbon dioxide, 2. Composition of soil air:, • Nitrogen percentage is more or less same as in atmosphere., • Oxygen levels decrease as compared to atmosphere., • CO2 levels will be nearly 8-10 times more (0.25%) as, compare to atmosphere., Solar constant:, • Defined as the energy falling in one minute on a surface area, of one square centimeter at the outer boundary of the, atmosphere, held normal to the sunlight, at the mean distance, of the earth from the sun., Agronomy, , 69, , A Competitive Book of Agriculture
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•, , Solar constant value is: 1.94 cal/cm2/min or SI unit is: 1353, , •, , Watts/m2, The solar radiation is received in the form of electromagnetic, waves/particles are called quanta or photons., , PAR (photo synthetic active radiation):, • photosynthesis in green leaves use solar energy, , in, , wavelengths from 0.4 to 0.7 um, Or the radiation 400-700 nm is most active in photosynthesis., , •, •, , Measured by Quantum sensor., Unit Einstein or Watt/m2, Lux: is the oldest unit to measures intensity of solar radiation., Spectrometer measures solar radiation in narrow wave bands., , •, •, , •, Lapse rate:, •, , The vertical temperature decrease or gradient is expressed, as lapse rate., • Normally lapse rate is 6.5 °C/km., Adiabatic lapse rate:, •, The rate at which the temperature changes as air rises or falls, is called adiabatic lapse rate:, •, Dry adiabatic lapse rate: 10 °C/km, • The condition in which there is abrupt rise instead of fall in, temperature is called inversion., Albedo, •, It's the ratio between incoming and outgoing radiations., • It is the percentage of the incident solar radiation reflected by, a surface is known as Albedo., • Albedo of the surface is equal to 0.4, Cyclone:, • A cyclone is a roughly circular low pressure area whose, diameter may be from hundred to a thousand miles., , Atmospheric pressure is always lowest in the center of this, region and increases rapidly outward e.g. Tornado, Typhons,, Herr ikens etc., Agronomy, , 70, , A Competitive Book of Agriculture
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Climate:, •, , Climate is a generalized weather or summation of weather, condition over a given region during a comparatively longer, , period., Classification of climate:, a. De CandoIle (1900 AD):, • The first person to attempt the classification of climate based, on vegetation., b. Koppen (1936):, • Divided the world climate into 5 groups, based on weather, elements., c. Troll (1965):, • This classification has been found satisfactory to explain, vegetation zones of tropical Africa & S. America., • This classification is suitable for agricultural purpose, • The ICRISAT (Hyderabad) adopted this method for, classifying semi arid tropics in India., d. Thornthwaite:, • Based on PE index, TE & Season distribution of rainfall, • PE index = P/E x 100, Where,, • PE = Precipitation of effectiveness, • P = Annual precipitation., • E = Annual evaporation., e. Moisture Deficit Index (MDI):, • AICRP on dry land (ICAR) adopted classification based on, •, , MDI., MDI = P-PET/PET x 100, Types of climate, MDI values, Sub humid, 0 to 33.3, Semi arid, -33.3 to -66.6, Arid, > - 66.6, , Agronomy, , 7 1, , A Competitive Book of Agriculture
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Measures of humidity:, • Humidity means water vapor content of the atmosphere., a., , Relative humidity:, Water vapor present in the air, •, , x100, , RH =, , Water vapor required for saturation, •, •, , Relative humidity is expressed in: Percentage (%), Mostly useful for agriculture., b. Absolute humidity:, • Unit of absolute humidity is: g/m3., c. Specific humidity:, • Unit of specific humidity is: WIT., Forms of precipitation:, • Rain: Drops of > 0.5 to 6 mm, • Drizzle: Drops of < 0.5 mm, • Snow: Ice crystal resulting from sublimation, • Dew: Moisture condensed in small drops upon cool surface, • Frost: A feathery deposit of ice, • Fog: A thin cloud of varying size, • Mist: A very thin fog, • Vapor: Water vapor in the atmosphere constitutes only about, 0.001 per cent of the total global water., Measurement of temperature:, a. Celsius: in Celsius scale, the melting and boiling point of water, are 0 and 100 °C respectively., • C = (F-32) 5/9, b. Fahrenheit: in Fahrenheit scale, the melting and boiling point of, water are 32 and 210 °F, • F = C (9/5) + 32, c. Kelvin: absolute temperature is measured in Kelvin units., • When there is no activity of molecules of substances,, then it is said to be at 0 °K., Agronomy, , 72, , A Competitive Book of Agriculture
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•, , The melting point of water in Kelvin scale is 273 °K, , • K = C + 273., Instruments:, a. Maximum thermometer: It is used to measure the highest, temperature attained during the day. It consists of hollow glass, tube filled with mercury., b. Minimum thermometer: It is used to measure lowest, temperature. It consists of a glass tube with alcohol in bulb., c. Soil thermometer: It is a mercury thermometer with a bend at, the bulb end., d. Thermo -couples: these are used for measuring soil temperature, and they are two types, viz., thermo-electric and resistance., Phenomenons:, •, , •, , Contour: Lines joining equal elevations., Isopleths: Line joining uniform values of any phenomena., Isobar: Imaginary lines connecting points of equal, , •, , atmospheric pressures., Isohyets: Lines of connecting points of equal amounts of, , •, , rainfall., Isobaths: Imaginary lines connecting points of equal water, , •, , •, •, , table elevations., Isohels:Lines connecting points of equal sunshine hours., Isophene: Lines connecting points of similar seasonal, , •, , phenomenon., Isotherm: Lines connecting points of equal temperature., Isotope: Elements having equal number oof, ., neutrons., Isopluvial: Lines joining equal depth of rainfall., Isotech: Lines connecting points of equal wind velocities., Isostere: Lines connecting points of constant moisture, , •, , contents., Isodemic: Lines which join the places of similar disease, , •, •, •, •, , severity.
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•, , Isoclines: A curve connecting the least cost combinations of, input for all output., Instruments and their use:, Instrument, , Uses, , Altimeter, , Height, Atmospheric pressure, , Aneroid barometer, , _, , Wind speed, Growth of plant, Convert mechanical energy to electrical, , Anemometer, , Crescograph, Dynamometer, Ca mbel stokes, ECG, Wind wane, , Duration of sun shine, Movement of heart, Wind direction, , Tensiometers, Galvanometer, Porometer, , Hydrometer, Hygrometer/Psychrometer, Lactometer, Lysimeter, Manometer, Planimeter, Pyrheliometer, Pyranometer, Pycnometer, _, Peizometer, Potometer, , Soil moisture tension, Electric currents, Stomal behavior, Measures relative density of liquids, Relative humidity, - Density of milk, milk purity, Evapotranspiration/leaching, Root pressure, Area of an irregular figure, Amount of direct solar radiation, Total incoming solar radiation, Specific gravity of soil, Depth of water table, Transpiration, --......, , Classification of irrigation projects:, Project, CCA (ha), Cost (Rs). •, Major, , >10,000, , > 50 Crores, , Medium, , 2000-10,090, , 5 Cror, , Minor, , < 2000, , Agronomy
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Monsoon:, •, , The word monsoon has originated from the Arabic term, which means "Season"., , •, , India is situated in the north-east trade wind zone and these, trade winds continue throughout the year, , •, , Total amount of precipitation in Country is: 1194 mm., Or total rainfall generated volume in India is: 400 mha-m, Average rainy days in country: 130 days/year., Rainy day: > 2.5 mm rains during 24 hours called rainy day, , •, •, •, , 1. The South -West monsoon:, • S. W. monsoon reach south India (in Kerala) around 1st June, of every year, • It moves at average speed 30 km/hour, • It's called as 'Grand period' of rainfall in India., • It contributes around > 75 % of total rainfall in India., South-West monsoon has two branches:, a. Arabian Sea branch:, • Contributes 770 mm/ 80 % of SW monsoon., • This moves northward (in Delhi)., b. Bay of Bengal:, • Contributes 340 mm/about 20 % of SW monsoon., • This move up to Assam., 2. The North-east monsoon:, • North -east monsoon is limited mostly to southern states (AP, •, •, •, , & TN)., This monsoon is also known as retreating monsoon., It contributes about 15 °A of total rainfall in India, EL Nino is a phenomenon that leads to rise in the ocean, temperatures and consequent dry weather and drou, River which utilize maximum flow: Ganga
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Artificial rain making/Cloud seeding:, • Application of foreign material, , to clouds, , to, , induce, , precipitation is called cloud seeding., a. Cold seeding: Silver iodide (AgI) or dry ice is applied at one, , nuclei for a liter of clo- ' air. In dynamic cloud seeding, massive, quantities of lOr 1000 nuclei for a liter of cloud air are applied., b. Warm clouds: Generally used Sodium chloride (Nacl)., Weather forecasting:, • Short range:, < 3 days or up to 72 hrs, •, , Medium range:, 3 -10 days, • Long range:, > 10 days, •, , The long range forecasts are issued thrice in a year and are, , useful for choosing cropping patterns., Synoptic method of forecasting is used for short range, forecasts., • NC-MRWF: National Center for Medium Range Weather, Forecasting, New Delhi., Properties of water:, 1 Latent heat of vaporization:, 580 CaUg at 100 °C, •( Heat of fusion is:, 80 CaUg., 1 Highest density of water at:, 4 "C, 1 Water expands on freezing:, 9% by volume., 1 Dielectric constant of water is: - 80, 1 Heat of sublimation is:, 620 CaUg., •, , 1, , Water has highest specific heat 1 CaUg of any known, substances except liquid ammonia i.e. 1.03 cal/g., , Water logging:, • A situation where all the pores both macro and micro are, filled with water temporarily or permanently., Demerit of water logging:, 1 Reduces ODR (oxygen diffusion rate)., ✓, Reduce Eh: Eh of well aerated soil is: 400-700my, st Eh of waterlogged soil:, -250 to -300 my, • Denitrification loss more in waterlogged soils., Agro nom y, , 76, , A Competitive Book of AgrIculture
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submerged rice SO4 are reduced to sulphide that is further, reduced to H2S that causes "Alciochi" in rice due to toxicity, In, , of H2S., , Approaches of irrigation scheduling:, a. Transpiration ratio approach:, • Amount of water transpired by a crop to produce unit amount, of dry matter., • This is also known as absolute approach., b. Soil moisture deficit approach:, • For maize & wheat 25% depletion of available soil, moisture., •, , For drought resistant crops 50% depletion of available soil, , moisture., c. Clinfatologically approach or IW/CPE approach:, • Known as soil moisture index approach., • The ratio IW/CPE serve as soil moisture stress index., • Lower the ratio will be more stress., • It is scientific approach but not practical utility., d. Critical stage approach:, • The state of growth when plants are most sensitive to, shortage of water and most responsive to correction of, deficiency., IW/CPE ratio, Crop, Critical stage, Panicle initiation, flowering, 1.2 (highest), Rice, CRI, jointing, milking, 0.9, Wheat, Maize, , _, , Cotton, Gram, Groundnut, , Pigeon pea, Safflower, , Agronomy, , Tasseling, silking, Flowering, boll formation, Pre -flowering, pod development, Flowering, pegging, pod filling, Flower initiation, pod formation, Flower initiation, , 77, , 0.9, 0.7, 0.6, 0.6, 0.6, v0.4 (lowest), , A Competitive Book of Agriculture
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Percentage irrigated and water requirement of Major field crops:, Crop, , % irrigated area., , Water requirement (mm), , Sugarcane, Wheat, Rice, Oil seed, Pulses, , 93%, , 1500-2500, , 85%, 50%, 25%, 10%., , 650-800, 1500, 500-700, 450-700, , Measurement of irrigation water:, • _1 Cusec:, 28.3 litres, • 1 Cumec:, 1000 litres, or 10 3, • 1 ha mm:, 10, 000 litres or 10 4, • 1 ha cm:, 100, 000 lit., or 105, • 1 ha m:, 100, 000, 00 lit. or 107, Measures of water height:, • 1 Atmosphere =, 1036 cm of water, • 1 Bar, =, 1023 cm of water, •, Conversion units of:, • One acre, =, 0.405 ha, • One ha, =, 2.47 acre., Ploughing is classified (according to CRIDA, Hyderabad 1985) as:, Type, Depth (in cm), Shallow, 5- 6, Medium, 15-20, Deep, 25-30, Watershed management:, • It may be a natural unit of land whose runoff collects and, flows out of the area through a single common outlet in to a, river or other water body., , Agronomy, , 78, , A Competitive Book of Agriculture
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Irrigation, Irrigation is the artificial application of water to partially meet the, crop evopo-transpiration requirement., Irrigation methods:, I. Surface irrigation:, • Most common method of irrigation in India., • It includes following methods., a. Flood irrigation:, • Water is applied to the crop by flooding it on the soil surface., • This method is practiced where irrigation water is abundant., • Mostly adopted in wetland rice., • Useful in uniform surface soils with good water holding, capacity., b. Check -basin:, •, , Most common among surface methods, suitable for close, growing crops e.g. wheat, groundnut, pearl millet etc., , •, , It consists in running water in to relatively level basins, surrounded by small ridges., Field with slope up to three per cent can be irrigated by using, this method., , •, •, , A limitation of this method is that it has too many ridges, which occupy large area of land., c. Ring basin:, • Suitable for fruit crops, d. Border strip method:, • In this method the field is divided into number of strips,, which are separated by ridges., •, , Soils with a slope of 0.5-1% is suitable for this method., • Field with slope up to seven percent can be irrigated when, pasture crops are grown., • Suitable for all close growing crops on medium to heavy, texture soils, • But not suitable for sandy soil, 79, Agr onomy, , A Competitive Book of Agnculture
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e. Furrow method:, • This method is generally used to irrigate row crops and, , •, , vegetables and is suited to soils in which infiltration rates are, between 0.5-2.5 cm/hour., It is ideal for slopes varying from 0.2-0.5 % and a stream size, of 1-21/second., , •, , The length of furrows may vary from 30 m for sandy soils at, lesser slope to 300m for heavy soils at greater slope., • Furrow irrigation is suitable to most type of soils except, sands that have a very high infiltration rate., • Furrows are mostly suitable for root and tuber crops, , f., , Corrugation:, • Small and shallow furrow are known as corrugation, suitable, for close growing crops like wheat, ground nut etc., g. Surge irrigation:, •, , The term" Surge irrigation" is the intermittent application of, , water to the field surface under gravity flow which results in, a series of ON & OFF modes of constant or variable time, span., •, , This process of ON- OFF water supply and cut off results in, minimized deep percolation and runoff losses (hardly, exceeding 20%)., , •, , Surge irrigation systems do not show marked differences in, land and water saving in extremely clay or sandy soils hence,, not popular in India., h. Cab legation:, • It's an automatic method of surface irrigation., 2. Sub -surface or sub soil irrigation system:, • Water is applied into a series of field ditches through, underground pipe lines, generally followed in Western, Countries., • This method is practiced in Kerala for coconut,, Gujarat and Kashmir on sandy loam soi], • Drip system can be used in sub $, Agronomy, , 80
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3. Sprinklers:, •, Water is applied with pressure to the surface of any crop or, soil in the form of a thin spray, somewhat resembling rainfall., • This system consists of sprinkler heads or nozzles, which are, mounted on risers in lateral lines taken from main line, which, is further connected to a pumping unit., • The rate of spray of water can be regulated and natural, rainfall can be simulated., • Sprinkler irrigation can be used for all most all crops, (except, rice and jute) and on most soils (except heavy clay soils)., • It is especially suited for fields with steep slopes or irregular, topography., • If soil erosion is a hazard, it can be used in conjunction with, contour bunding, terracing, mulching and strip cropping., Advantages of sprinkler irrigation:, •, Suitable for undulating topography and sandy soils., • Saving of water from 25-50% for different crops, •, Discharge rate is more than 1000 lit/hr., •, , Sprinkler pressure 2.5-4.5 kg/cm 2., , •, , Water use efficiency can be as high as 60 % much higher to, surface method of irrigation., Increase 40 % in irrigated area with same amount of water as, , •, , compared with surface method of irrigation., •, About 40-60 % saving in labour compared with surface., •, It can be used to protect crops against frost and high, temperatures., 4. Drip irrigation:, •, Introduced from Israel., •, Drip or trickle irrigation is one of the latest methods of, irrigation which is becoming increasingly popular in areas, with water scarcity and salt problems., •, , This irrigation is defined as the precise but slow application, of water as discrete drops or continuous drops through, , Agronomy, , 81, , A Competitive Elm*
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mechanical devices, called emitters located at selected points, along water delivering lines., This system involves the slow application of water, drop by, , •, , drop to the root zone of a crop., In this method water is used very economically, since losses, due to deep percolation and surface evaporation are reducing, , •, , to the minimum., Drip irrigation is best suited in water scarcity area where, water quality is marginal, topography is undulating or steep,, 'soil depth is restricted, labour is expensive and crop value is, , •, , high., Advantages of drip irrigation:, •, , Suitable for water scarcity area water saving 50-70% as, , compare to surface., Fertilizer or other chemical amendment can be efficiently, applied to individual or separate plants., • Discharge rate of water per dripper is generally 1- 4 lit/hr at, 2.5 kg/cm2pressure., • Fertilizers (Fertigation) and herbicides (Herbigation) also, possible to apply with drip., • Most suitable for widely spaced crops, orchard trees and in, green houses (protected cultivation of vegetables & flowers)., 5. Typhoon system of drip irrigation:, • In sugarcane modified drip, in this method a particular, water depth maintained at a particular growth stage., Drainage: Agricultural drainage is the removal of excess water, known as free water or gravitational water from the surface or below, the surface of the farm land so as to create favorable soil conditions, for plant growth., Drainage methods: 1. Surface drainage 2. Sill) surface drainage., 1. Surface drainage:, • Simplest and cheapest, - • Most common in India by digginCopen drains at suitable, intervals and depth, a. Drainage_of flat areas:, •, , Agronomy, , 82, , A Competitive Book of Agriculture
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•, , Where slope less than 2%, • Used for flat areas., b. Broad bed and furrow system (BBF):, • Field is laid out into 120-150 cm width beds and 45 cm, wide furrows across the slope., •, , About 0.5 % slope is provided for free drainage., , •, , Crops are sowed on beds having two or more than two, rows each. The beds are 15 cm raised., , •, , BBF methods are widely practiced in groundnut (clay, soil)., , 2. Sub -surface drainage:, •, , Purpose is to lower down the ground water level below root, , zone., Sub -surface drainage is includes:, a. Tile drains: Including perforated pipes., b. Mole drainage: Suitable for clay soil., c. Vertical drainage: Drainage by digging wells is called vertical, drainage . This practiced in coffee gardens., Methods of water measurements:, I. Orifices:, • To measure water in comparatively small streams like flow, into border stripes furrows/ check basin., 2. Weirs:, • Used to measure the flow in an irrigation channel or the, discharge of a channel outlet at the source., • Basic equation for discharge through weir is: Q = CLIP', • Discharge relationship for suppressed weirs is = 0.0184 LH 3/2, 900 -V" notch weir: is an excellent device for measuring small, flows. The discharge maybe computed using the formula., • Q = 0.0138 H25, 3. Parshall flume (venture flume):, , • Combination of weir and the submerged orifice, , Agronom y, , 83, , A Competitive Book of Agriculture
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•, , Can be used even in relatively shallow channels like, , irrigation furrows with flat grades., • '1, , .:;•";, , Soil moisture constants, Metric potential:, • The total water potential that is attributed to the solid, , colloidal matrix of the soil system, Capillary potential:, • The energy with which water is held by soil is defined in, , terms of capillary potential., Seepage:, • Horizontal flow of water channel is called seepage., • Water loss from the irrigation channel or canal is mainly due, to seepage., Percolation:, • Down ward movement of water through saturated or nearly, saturated soil in response to the gravity., Infiltration:, • Entry of water from the upper layer of soil is called, , infiltration., •, , It occurs in unsaturated soil., Leaching:, • Downward movement of nutrients and salts from the root, , zone with the water is called leaching., Saturation capacity:, • When all the soil pores are filled with water at a tension of, zero "o" bars is termed as saturation capacity., Field capacity:, • The soil moisture content after 2-3 days of irrigation and after, drainage of gravitational water has become very slow and soil, moisture content had become relatively stable., • At the field capacity, the large pores filled with air and the, micro pores are filled with water., Agronomy, , 84, , A Competitive Book of Agriculture
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•, , It is considered as the upper limit of water availability to, plants., The tension at field capacity ranges from -0.1 to —0.33 (1/3), It is determined with the help of pressure plate apparatus., , •, •, PWP:, • The concept permanent wilting point (PWP) proposed by, Briggs and Shantz in 1912., • They utilized dwarf sunflower as an indicator plant., • Soil moisture content at which plants can be no longer, obtains enough moisture to meet their requirement and, , remained unless water is added to the soil., • It is the lower limit of available water to plant., • Although plants not dead, but they are now in a permanently, wilted condition and die if water is not added., • Soil moisture tension is -15 bars, Wilting coefficient:, • The percentage of moisture in root zone at the permanent, wilting of plants is called the wilting coefficient or critical, moisture point., Available water:, • Concept of available water given by Veihmayer and, Hendrickson 1981, • It is the portion of capillary water held between Field, Capacity to PWP (i.e. - 0.3 to -15 bars)., Ultimate wilting point:, • The moisture content at which wilting is complete and the, plant die is called UWP., • At UWP the soil moisture tension is as high as -60 bars., pH: the term pH given by SPL Sorenson (1909):, • Defined as the negative logarithm of hydrogen ion activity., •, •, , Log 1/ (Fr), Range:, Acidic:, Neutral:, , Agronomy, , 0-14, <7, 7, 85, , A Competitive Book of Agriculture
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Basic:, >7, PF Value: it is defined by Schoefild (1935)., • The logarithm of centimeter height of a water column to give, , the necessary suction., Expressed in centimeter of water (based on the height of a, water column above free water level in cm)., Pressure (atm/bars), Soil condition, PFvalues, •, , 0.001, , Saturated soil:, Field capacity:, PWP:, Hygroscopic point, Oven dry soil:, , 1/3, 15, 31'', 10000, , 2.53, 4.18, 4.50, 7.0, , P E given by Silen:, • It is negative logarithm of electron activity., • PE= Eh/0.0591, • It measure intensity of oxidation-reduction., Measurement of soil moisture:, • Indirect method (on the basis of tension):, a. Tensiometer/irrometer:, • Tensiometers ale sensitive up to 0.85 bar of soil moisture, • Suitable for sandy soil in which most of the available water, below 1 bar tension., • Not suitable for clay soil., • Tensiometers are vrAN.7 useful in scheduling irrigation to, frequently irrigated crop., b. Electrical resistance/bouyoueous moisture meter/gypsum, block:, • Based on conductivity of electricity low resistance at field, capacity and high at PWP, • Gypsum block perform satisfactory measurement in dry soil, • Not suitable for saline soil as salt in soil increase, conductivity., Agronomy, , 86, , A Competitive Boak of Agriculture
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▪, , It is used for measuring soil moisture tension up to 0-15 bar, and for scheduling irrigation of crops of delayed intervals., C. Neutron moisture meter:, • Rapid method used for Field or in situ measurement of soil, moisture from large volume of soil based on the measurement, of number of 1-1+ nuclei present in a unit volume of soil., •, , This is best method at present available for quantities, estimation of changes in soil moisture. (ARS-05), 4 . Pressure member and pressure plate apparatus:, • Used for laboratory measurement of soil moisture potential., • Generally used for estimating FC, PWP and moisture content, at different pressures., • Suitable for measuring soil moisture tension: 0-15 bar., Soil moisture characteristic curve:, • A curve showing relationship between the energy statuses of, water i.e. tension and amount of moisture in soil., Soil moisture characteristic curve:, • For sandy soils= L shaped, • For clay soils= I shaped (almost a straight line)., ET (evapo-transpiration):, • Total amount of water lost due to transpiration by crop and, evaporation from the soil surface during a specified time from, •, , a particular area., , Evapo-transpiration constitutes nearly 99 % of the total water, , uptake., PET (potential evapo-transpiration):, • Concept of PE9twas given by Thornthwaite (1948), • the ET occurs 4ihen the ground is fully or completely, , covered by actively growing vegetation and no limitation of, soil moisture., , • ' PET is the upper limit of ET for a crop in a given climate., , Measurement of ET:, a. Lysimeter:, , Agronomy, , 87, , A Competitive Book of Agriculture, , .;
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•, , It consists growing of crops in large containers installed, , in a crop field measuring their water loss and gains., •, , Leaching losses can also be measured by lysimeters., , b. Soil moisture depletion studies:, •, , Depletion (D) = FC-PWP x D. Db., , Where,, FC = Field capacity, PWP = Permanent wilting potential, , = Bulk density., c. ET can be measured by evaporation data:, (i) USWB class "A" open pan evaporimeter:, •, It is standard evaporimeter most widely used by agroD = Depth,, , Db, , meteorological observatories., It having diameter of 120 cm with a depth of 25 cm and it, , •, , filled with water up to 20 cm, It is painted white. Evaporation is expressed as mm/day, (ii) Sunken screen evaporimeter:, •, , •, •, , Developed by Sharma and Dastane, 1968, It is used to measure evaporation (ET) under field, conditions., , •, , It is determination of PET/ET ratio which according to, , them varies from 0.95 to 1.05., (iii)Portable evaporimeter:, • It was developed in Israel in 1984 to measure evaporation, for very short periods., Consumptive use of water:, • It is used to designate the losses due to evapo-transpiration, and the water used by the plant for its metabolic activities., • CU = ET + Water used in metabolic activities., • About 99 percent of water loss in plant due to evapo-, , transpiration, only 1 % of water is used in actual metabolic, process., Estimation of PET/ET:, a. Penman method:, Agronomy:, •, , 88, , A Competitive Book of Agriculture, , inglatatatimmui,.4
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•, , Developed by penman, 1950 for estimating evaporation from, free water surface,, , •, •, , It is most accurate estimation of ETo., As it utilize all meteorological parameter responsible for ET., , b. Water use efficiency (WUE):, • It is the yield of a marketable crop produced per unit of water, used in evapo-trt.nspiration. OR, • WUE = The dry matter produced per unit of water used and it, expressed as kg/ha-mm., • Water use efficiency of are two types:, (i) Crop water use efficiency:, • It is the ratio of crop yield (y) to the amount of water, depleted by the crop in the process of evapotranspiration (ET)., • WUE (Crop) = Y/ET, (ii) Field water use efficiency:, •, , It is the ratio of crop yield (y) to the total amount of, water used in the field (WR)., , •, , WUE (Field), , =, , Y/VVR, , Water use efficiency of major field crops:, S.N, , Crop, , WUE (kg/ha mm), , 1, , Finger millet, , 13.4, , 2, , Wheat, , 12.6, , 3, , Groundnut, , 9.2, , 4, , Sorghum, , 9.0, , 5, , Pear millet, maize, , 8.0, , 6, , Rice, , 3.7 (lowest), , Agronomy, , 89, , A Competitive Book of Agriculture
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Terms, Crop, , Terms, , Tobacco, tea, , Curing:, Stripping:, , Jute, , Nipping:, , Gram, cotton, , Wrapping:, , Sugarcane, , Propping:, , Banana, , Trashing:, , Sugarcane, , Oil percentage in field crops:, Crop, Coconut:, , Oil (%), 60, 46-52, 44-50, , Sesame:, Ground nut:, , Castor:, 35-58, Safflower:, 24-36, Rape seed and mustard:, 33, Soybean:, 20, Protein content in cereals:, • Rice:, 6-7% Wheat: 11-12% (Gluten' protein), • Maize:, 10%, Sorghum:, 10-12%, • Bajra:, 11-12%Barley: 11.5% (Albuminoids), Protein content in pulses:, • Gram:, 21.1%, Lentil: 25%, • Pea:, 22.5%, Arhar: 21-25%, • Moong:, 25%, Urd: 24%, • Cow pea:, 23.4% (Known as vegetable meat)., Protein content in oilseeds:, • Soybean:, 42%, Groundnut: 26%, • Sesame:, 18-20%, Linseed: 36%, • Safflower:, 40-45%, Agronomy, , 90, , A Competitive Book of Agriculture
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z1, ,1, , Cron Production, 1. Padth (Oryza staira): 2n =24, V Rice is the stable food of more than 60% world population and, most of the people of S.E. Asia, about 90% of rice grown in the, , world is produced and consumed in Asia., it is a crop which is grown in wet tropical climate and also grown, in humid regions of subtropics., In India, rice occupies the first position among the cereals in, respect of both area and production. Rice contains less protein 6-7, % and contains 2-2.5 % fat which is lost during milling., •7 Hulling percent in rice is 66% or 2/3 of paddy., 1 In general cereal crops required about 400-500 liters of water for, , 1, , 1, 1, , the production of one kg of plant dry matter., But rice consumed ten times more water i.e. 5000 liters of water, to produced 1 kg rice grain.(0BC, Bank -09), In rice field to prevent denitrification and leaching losses Nfertilizer should be incorporated in reduced zone so that the, , process of nitrification is delayed., 1, 1, , Rice field submergence in 5cm deep water during the, reproductive and grain formation stages is beneficial. (NET -2001), Rice grain relatively rich in lysine which is 4 % of total protein, , fraction., ✓ The main protein in rice is: Oryzenin, •./ Propanil (Stam F-34) is the most widely used post emergence, herbicide in rice., Area & Distribution:, • Area:, • Production:, • Productivity:, In India:, • Area:, • Production:, Agronomy, , India > China > Indonesia, China > India > Indonesia, USA > Japan > China, , West Bengal > UP > Bihar, West Bengal > UP > Andhra Pradesh, 92, , A Competitive Book of Agriculture
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•, , Productivity: Punjab (34 q/ha)., Classification:, Genus Oryza have 24 species out of which two are cultivated., 1. Oryza saliva, Diploid, 2n=24, it has three main geographic races., a. Indica-grown throughout tropics and sub -tropics in India and, , characterized by tall stature, weak stem, and droopy leaves, and irresponsive to high input conditions, low productivity., b. Japonica: grown in temperate and sub -tropical regions of, Japan and characterized by short stature sturdy stem,, narrow erect & dark leaves and responsive to intensive input, condition having highest productivity, grain shape short., c. Javanica/Balu rice: Grown in Indonesia, few tillers, wild, form of rice, has many awns., 2. Oryza glaberrima: it is grown in West Africa only., Origin: Indo-Burma region., ✓, Rice is self pollinated crop, fruit type is caryopsis., , The grain or caryopsis is tightly enclosed by the lema and, palea called the hull., ✓, Test weight (wt. of 1000 grains) is = 25g, ,1 Rice stem is commonly called the haulm or cu/m., ✓, Inflorescence is panicle which is a group of spikelet., ✓, Climate: C3, short day plant and required hot & humid, ✓, ✓, , climate., Soil: clay and clay loam. Most suitable pH range is between, 5.5 and 6.5., Rice is semi aquatic plant grown best under submerged, , condition, under these conditions the atmosphere oxygen is, transported by aerenchymatous tissues of leaves., Seasons:, • Aus: Sowing time April -May., • Aman (Kharif): Sowing time June -July., • Boro (spring): Sowing time November - December., • In North West part of country only kharif crop is taken., , Varieties:, Agronomy, , 93, , A Competitive Book of Agriculture
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•, , First dwarf variety of rice developed in world is TN-/ in, , •, , •, •, •, •, , •, •, •, •, •, •, •, •, •, •, , Taiwan in 1964-65., First high yielding dwarf variety developed in world is IR-8,, by cross between Dee -Gee -Woo -Gen x Peta. it was the first, known variety to be released by International Rice Research, Institute in 1966., Literally meaning of Dee-gee-woo-gen is: Brown tipped, short legged., In 1964, the introduction of Taichung Native 1 (TN- l) in, India signaled a new era in the improvement of rice yield., It was followed by the introduction of IR 8 in India from, The IRRI, Manila (Philippines) in 1965., First Indian high yielding earliest semi -dwarf variety Jaya, released in 1968, evolved by Dr. Shastry, and it's a cross, between TN -I x Type 141. It's out yielded TN -1 & IR-8, both; hence called 'Miracle rice in India'., Cuttack (odissa) evolved two varieties: Malinga & Mahsuri, Mutant variety of rice: Jaganath and Sattari., Variety suitable for direct seeding: Bala, BLB (bacterial leaf blight) tolerant: TKM-6, Salinity tolerant: IR-8, Lunishree, Suitable for waterlogged area: Jalmagna, First hybrid of basmati in world: PRH-10., First hybrid of rice in India is: CORH-1 (1994), Variety released from IARI: Norin-8, 1, basmati-370, Pankaj, IR-20., , Pusa Basmati-1: Its world's first, under quality rice has been, convergent breeding., Seed rate:, • Broadcast in
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•, , 50 hills per m2 sufficient to assure adequate population in rice, field., Fertilizer management:, • NPK ratio 100:60:60 is generally recommended in rice for, high yielding varieties., • The water logged puddle soil develops two zones; the upper, zone (1 to 10 mm), a thin surface layer which contains, oxygen is called "oxidized zone" and immediately below the, oxidized layer lies a reduced layer which contains no oxygen, is called "reduced zone". (RPSC,AA0-2012), •, , Use of nitrate fertilizer in paddy field should be avoided due, , to more susceptibility to loss of nitrogen through leaching, and denitrification., •, , Hence, the deep placement of the ammonical form of, nitrogenous fertilizers in the reduced zone has been proved to, be efficient method of nitrogen application than other, methods., , • Nitrogen use efficiency in rice: 30-40%., Biological Nitrogen Fixation:, •, It has been estimated that the total nitrogen requireffient of, rice could be brought down by about 25-30 per cent through, biofertilizer (algae)., •, , In addition to blue green alagae (BGA), the association of, the water fern Azolla with the blue green algae Annabaena, azollae also helps in biological nitrogen fixation., , •, , Azatobaeter, a non -symbiotic nitrogen fixing bacteria, fixes atmospheric nitrogen biologically in rice field., , Khaira disease:, • Zn deficiency causes Khera disease, nursery stage., •, , The tip of the zinc, then dry.
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•, , Zinc deficiency is marked by the appearance of rust., coloured or brownish red coloration on the surface of the, , outer leaves., • First reported by Y.L. Nene in 1966 at Pantnagar,, Uttrakhand., • It is managed by spray of @ 5 kg zinc sulphate in nursery., • or foliar spray of 0.5 per cent zinc sulphate., Browning of rice:, • Iron toxicity in rice is known as browning of rice, • Iron toxicity is the major problem to rice production in water, logged acid -sulphate soils of ultisols & oxisols soil orders., • The beginning of iron toxicity is characterized by the, appearance of a puple coloration at the leaf tips and finally, has a scorched appearance., • Phalguna variety is tolerance to Fe -toxicity., Silicon in rice:, • Silicon is regarded as essential nutrient in rice production., • Silicon deficient plants are soft and droopy., • Silicon supply mostly required during the panicle initiation, stage because during this stage root activity is relatively, reduced and the rate of transpiration is high., • It has been noticed that silicon provides a thick cuticle -silica, layer which functions as a barrier against attack by insectspests., •, , Silicon deficiency can be corrected by application of basic, , slag @ 1.5 2.0 t/ha. Because basic slag is the most common, source of calcium silicate., Weed management:, • Echinochola crusgali (barn yard grass) and E., (jangli rice) are major weeds in rice., • The weed problem is less in transplanted ri, upland direct seeded., • In upland condition weed problem are gen, Herbicides used in rice crop:, Agronomy, 96
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•, •, , Benthiocarb @ 2 kg a.i. /ha is applied as pre -emergence., Propanil (Stam F-34): @ 3 kg a.i. /ha is applied at 1 week, , after transplanting., Other herbicides Butaclor (Machete) @ 2-3.0 kg/ha is used, as pre -emergence., Anilphos @ ......, , •, , •, Beushening:, • It involves cross ploughing the young crop, 4-6 weeks after, sowing with a light country plough in 5-10 cm standing, water, ones or twice., • Purpose behind this to control weeds, optimize crop stand, and provide soil aeration., Puddling:, • It is a process of destruction of soil aggregates by mechanical, force in soils with excessive moisture content., • Puddling destroys the soil structure which hampers root, , penetration and the development of the succeeding upland, •, , crops grown in rotation with rice., Puddling increases the bulk density of soil about from 1.4 to, , •, , 1.7 g/cc., It is done with a puddler., , Objective of puddling:, • To reduce percolation losses of water. (main object), • To reduce weeds infestation., • To increase nutrients availability., Critical stages for water., • Booting stage: Most critical stage for water in rice crop., • Tellering stage: Comes 2-20 days after transplanting., Dapog method of rice cultivation:, • Introduced from Philippines., • in this method, seedling becomes ready for, le day after seeding., •, , It comprises raising of a dense stand, contact with soil.
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•, , 2, , Rate for nursery sprouted seeds @ 1.5-3 kg/m on wooden, planks, trays, concrete floor, and seedbed covered with, , •, , polythene sheet., Seedling from Im 2 nursery area is sufficient for 200m 2 field., , •, , Hence, 45-50 m 2 nursery area is sufficient for one ha., , Hybrid rice:, •, , In the last decade of 1970, hybrid rice was firstly developed, by China by using cytoplasm male sterility -fertility restore, gene system., , •, , After China, India is the second country to commercialized, hybrid rice of APRH-1, APRH-2 (AP), KRII (Karnataka),, and MGR -1 (TN)., •, , PH13-71 is the only hybrid rice which is released by private, organization., , Processing of rice:, 1. Milling: The aleurone layer and embryo are removed during the, polishing of rice grain. All the grain constituents except the, , carbohydrates are reduced by the process of polishing. There is a, loss of vitamin B, particularly thymine, the deficiency of which, causes the disease called 'ben -ben' in those persons who, continuously eat polished rice. (UPPCS Exam -2010), 2. Polishing of rice: The removal of very fine bran clinging to milled, rice and smoothening of the surface is called polishing., 3. Parboiling: It is a hydrothermal process in which the crystalline, , form of starch is changed in to an amorphous form on account of, irreversible swelling and fusion of starch., Important questions:, Sowing time of Aus/autumn rice:, 1, April- May, _, Sowing time of Boro rice:, 1, November -December _, 1, Rice inflorescence is known as:, Panicle., _, 1, Rice is a type of plant:, Short day plant, 1, Cardinal temperature of rice is:, 30-32 degree, _, 1, Hulling % of rice is:, 65%., •/, , Fruit of rice is known as:, , Agronom y, , Caryopsis., 98, , A Competitive Book of Agriculture
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Widely used nitrogenous fertilizer in, , Ammonium sulphate, , rice:, , Optimum pH of soil required for, growing rice is:, ,, Mat type nursery is related to crop:, _, Test weight of basmati rice:, _, Maximum exporter of rice in world:, , V, , Hybrid rice which, V, V, V, V, V, V, , is released, , by, , 4-6 pH., Paddy., 21 g., , Thailand., PHB-71., , private sector:, Most critical stage of water for rice:, Booting stage., Biofertilizer for rice is:, Azolla., Seedling ready for transplanting in 12-14 days., Dapog method:, Most dominant weed species in rice:, Echinochola sp., White eye of rice due to:, Fe deficiency., The gas emits from rice field is:, Methane., , V, , Akiochi disease in rice due to:, , V, , Highest nitrogen losses in the rice crop Denitrification., , V, , by:, Paira & Utera cropping system is, , V, V, V, , closely related to:, Parboiling of rice conserve the, vitamin:, Seed rate in Dapog method for rice:, , H 2S toxicity., , Rice, _, , Vitamin BI2, 3-4 kg/m 2, , Area required for seedling preparation 25-30 m 2, , V, V, , in Dapog method:, Miracle rice of India is:, _Jaya, Gene responsible for dwarfness in rice: Dee -gee -Woo -Gene, , V, , Spacing for rice sowing of seedling:, , Khaira disease of rice is due to:, v - Reclamation disease of cereals due to:, A rice grain is said to be extra long if it, v, , - 20 X 10 cm, , Zinc deficiency, Copper deficiency, 7 mm or more, , is:, Agronomy, , 99, , A Competitive Rook of Agriculture
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2. Wheat ( TriIleum tieslirunt): 2n = 42, I, , Wheat ranks first in the world among the cereals both in, , I, , respect of area and production., In India wheat crop is the second most after rice so wheat is, called as 'king of cereals'., , V The word "Cereals" derived from a roman word 'Ceres', 1, , which means the Goddess of grain., Wheat contains spongy protein i.e. Gluten (this is colloidal, complex of gliaidine and glutenin in equal amounts) which, , is essential for baking., Perling index in wheat: to determine the hardiness of grain,, a higher value of P.I. means lower kernel hardness., 1 In wheat the permanent adventitious roots develops below, the soil surface after the appearance of the first leaves is, called clonal roots. (NET -2001), • Wheat inflorescence known as ear or spike and seed is, caryopsis., I Mustard is very common crop usually intercropped with, wheat., ✓, Test weight of wheat grain is about 40g. While test weight of, phalaris minor is only 2g., ,1 Gene responsible for dwarfness in wheat is Norin-10 which, is a Japanese variety isolated by Dr. Borlaug in 1960 at, Mexico., • In 1963 Lerma Rojo, Sonaro 63, Sonaro-64 and Mayo 64, were imported by then Minister of Agriculture, Shri C., Subramaniam and released for commercially cultivation in, India (1965) these varieties were responsible for green, revolution in India., Area & Production (India):, • Area:, UP>M P> Punjab, • Production:, U P> Punjab > Haryana, • Productivity: Punjab (45q. /ha) > Haryana, Agronomy, , 100, , A Competitive Book of Agriculture
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•, , The highest productivity of wheat in Punjab due to nearly, 100 % area of wheat is under irrigated conditions and, higher doses of fertilizer consumption., Classification:, 1. Common breed wheat (T. aestivum):, • Its hexaploids, 2n =42 (imported species but mostly grown in, India)., • Occupying about 87% of wheat area., • Introduced in India by Borlaug from Mexico, hence called, Mexican dwarf wheat and responsible for green revoluation., 2. Durum/Macaroni wheat (T. durum):, • Tetraploids, 2n=28., • Used for Suji, Semya preparation., • This occupies about 12% of wheat area, confined to Central, and Southern India., 4. Emmer wheat (T. diccocum):, • Tetraploids, 2n=28, • Occupies about 1% wheat area confined to MIL AP, KN and, TN,, • Preferred for granular preparation of south Indian, dish"Uppumay", 5. Indian dwarf wheat (T. sphaeroccocum): 2n=42, hexaploid., • This is out dated due to low productivity and susceptible to, diseases particularly rusts disease., Origin of place: S. W. Asia (Turkey)., Irrigation stages of wheat (by R.B.L. Bhardwaj), 1. CRI (crown root initiation) stage: 21' days after sowing, • Transition zone between root and shoot is known as, crown root initiation., 2. Tellering stage:, Up to 40-45 Day after sowing., 3. Jointing stage:, Up to 60-65 Day after sowing., 4. Flowering stage:, Up to 80-85 Day after sowing., Up to 100-105 Day after sowing., 5. Milking Stage:, Up to 115-120 Day after sowing., 6. Dough stage:, A Competitive Book of Agriculture, Agronomy, 101
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V' Dough stage is refers to when milky fluid in wheat grains, , turns harden., V If water is available to provide one irrigation, then it should, be applied at CR.! stage., If water is available to provide two irrigations, then it is, preferred at: CRI and late jointing., Climate: C3, Long day plant. The most ideal conditions for desirable, wheat growth are:1. Cool and moist weather during the vegetative growth period., 2. Warm and dry weather during grain formation. (icsittAs), Booting stage:, • It is reproductive stage in wheat characterized by the swelling, of the upper most internode., • The spike which is inside is held by the last leaf calledflag, leaf This is the stage of the maximum leaf areas., Wheat (T. aestivum) Varieties:, •, , Norin 10 has cretaed a new chapter in the history of wheat, breeding., , •, , The dwarfness of norm n was the result of two particularly, recessive genes, which marked with the symbols of Sd I and, Sd 2. (ICS Exam -2002), , 1. Single gene dwarf:, • Lerma Rojo 64-A, • Sujata, •, Sonalika: developed from selection of HD 1553 and RR 21, 2. Double gene dwarf:, • Kalyan Sona: developed from Kalyan 227 and Sona 227, •, • Sonaro-64, Chhoti Lerma, • HD -2009 (Arjun), HD -2329, Janak,, 3. Triple gene dwarf:, • Heera, Moti, Lal Badshah., 4. Mutant varities: released from IAR1, New Delhi, • Sharbati sonora developed from: Sonoro 64, •, Pusa lerma from: Lerma Rojo 64-A, Agronomy, , 102, , A Competitive Book of Agriculture
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Other popular varieties:, • Lok-1: Suitable for late sowing., • Tall variety of wheat is: C-306. (Farmy wheat)., • K-65: Suitable for late sowing and saline soils., • Sujata: Suitable for dry land (unirrigated) area., • WH-147: Suitable for making good quality of 'Chapatti', • PBW-502 (2004):Good yielder under irrigated, cool climate, • DBW- 17 (2006):Suitable for 'bread' making, • RAJ -3765: Late sowing variety, resistant to lodging, • RAJ -4037 (2004): Suitable for warm climate, • RAJ -3077: Suitable for saline and late sowing., • RAJ -4120 (2009):Resistant to UG-99 race of rust, yield 4858 q/ha., Seed rate:, • For normal sowing:, 100kg seeds/ha., • For late/broadcasting: 125kg seeds/ha., • For dibbling required: 25-30 kg seeds/ha., Sowing date: 1st fortnight of November is the best time of wheat, sowing., Sowing methods:, I. Drilling: Fertilizer -cum -seed drills are most common, 2. Broadcasting: Required more seeds, 3. Dibbling: Required less seeds than other sowing methods, 4. Behind the plough method: these are two types, (a) Kera method: When seeds are dropped by hand in the, furrows made by country plough is known as Kera method, (b) Pora method: When seeds are dropped in furrow by funnel/, nai attached to the plough is known as Pora method, 5. FIRB Method: New method of sowing is furrow irrigated raised, bed system: it gives average to higher yield than other methods., Spacing:, • 22.5 cm x 10 cm depth for irrigated., • 25-30 cm x 5-6 cm depth for rainfed., Depth of sowing is depends on length of coleoptiles., Agronomy, , A Competitive Book of Agriculture
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•, , •, •, , Tall varieties 8-9 cm depth., Triple dwarf varieties 3-4cm depth., An average 5cm depth is ideal for wheat sowing., , Fertilizer and Manures:, • Nitrogen:, 120 kg/ha, • Phosphorus:, 60 kg/ha, • Potash:, 40 kg/ha, Dose: Half dose nitrogen and full dose of P & K applied as basal and, remaining half dose of nitrogen applied as top dressing at 1st and 2"d, irrigations., Weed management:, a. Monocot weeds:, •, Phalaris minor (applied isoproturon @ 0.75 a.i. /ha.)., •, Phalaris minor has showed resistance against isoproturon, reported by Dr. R.K. Malik at Hissar, hence Sulfosulfuron, can be used instead isoproturon against Phalaris minor., •, Avena fatua (wild oat): to control Phalaris minor and Avena, fatua a post emergence application of Tribunil (now, banned in India due to carcinogenic properties)., b. Dicot weeds:, •, Chenopodium, Anagalis and Melilotus alba etc. Applied 2,, 4-D Eater Salt as post -emergence i.e. 30-35 DAS @, 500m1/ha to control dicot (broad leaved weeds)., Important questions:, Botanical name of (common bread) wheat is: Triticum, aestivum., Origin of wheat is: South West Asia (turkey), Flowering portion of wheat is called: Spike, Macaroni wheat is known as: Triticum durum, Emmer wheat is known as: T. diccocum, • Suitable late sown variety of wheat: Lok-I, Raj -3765,, Sonalika., • Spacing of row to row of wheat: 22.5cm, • Most critical stage for irrigation: CRI (21 DAS), Agronomy, , 104, , A Competitive Book of Agriculture
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•, •, , Gene responsible for dwarfness in wheat is: Norin-10, Important mimicry weed of wheat is: Phalaris minor, Test weight of wheat seed: 40gm, Triple gene dwarf varieties of wheat: Heera, Moti, Arjun, Central zig zag axis of wheat grain is called: Rachis, , •, •, •, •, , Fruit type of wheat is: Caryopsis, , •, •, •, •, •, •, , First man made cereals: Triticale, Triticale is a cross of: Wheat x Rye, DT -46 is a variety of: Triticale, Temperature for germination of wheat seed: 20-25 °C., Protein content in wheat: 8-11%, World staple food grain: Wheat, , •, , Most of the present days Indians wheat varieties contain the, gene: Rht I & Rht 2, , •, , The wheat protein which is essential for good bread quality, , •, , and chapatti making is: Gluten, For safe storage moisture content of grain should be ranges, from: 10-12%, Triticum aestivum was first introduced in the India by: NE, Borlaug of Mexico, Moisture content at harvesting stage in wheat is: 25-30%, , •, •, , Triple gene dwarf varieties were released in the year: 1970, The sate which has highest production and cultivation area, , •, •, , •, •, •, •, •, •, , of wheat: UP, Export quality of wheat is influenced by: Kornai bunt, Dwarfing agent for wheat crop is: Cycocel, Objectionable weed of wheat is: Convolves arvensis, Variety of wheat , susceptible to 2, 4-D where spike, deformity occur: HD -2009 (Arjun), Primary roots in wheat that support and nourish the plants at, initial stage is called: Seminal roots, In wheat hybridization method most common use: Goojo, method, , Agronomy, , 105, , A Competitive Book of Agricultit
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•, •, , Absolute weed of wheat is: Chenopodium album, Recommended ratio for wheat + mustard intercropping is:, , •, •, , 9:1, Biofertilizer for wheat is: Azatobacter, Multiline in wheat are produced by: back cross breeding., , •, , The earliest type of barley is two -rowed but now days most, , •, , barley growing groups are six -rowed barley., Barley is comparatively more tolerant to saline and alkali soils, than other cereals., The barley flour does not contains gluten., , •, •, , The barley grains are mostly used in the production of malt, which is used in breweries to make beer, alcohol, malt,, , vinegar and yeast., Classification of varietal groups of barley:, 1. Vulgare:, • It is six -rowed barley, • All the three spikelets are fertile., • Spikelets in six distinct rows are arranged at a uniform, distance around the rachis, • Lemma of all the florets are awned or hooded, • This group is most commonly cultivated in India. (ICS/NET-2002), 2. Irregulare:, • In this group ear may be six -rowed and two -rowed., • Lemma does not bear awns or hoods, 3. Distichon:, • It consist of only two -rowed barley, • Only central spikelet is fertile, Varieties:, •, •, , Ratna, Jyoti, RS -6, Rajkiran, RD -2052, RD -2552, RD -2035, , Agronomy, , 106, , A Competitive Book of Agriculture
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\la ize: Zeu, Maize is a non tiller plant., Maize is usually a cross-pollinated crop., In maize yellow color due to presence of: Cryptoxanthin, Maize possesses the highest yield potential among the, cereals., Maize protein is called zein' and is deficient in tryptophan, and lysine., 4., , •, •, •, •, •, •, , Maize required optimum temp. for germination is 18.3 °C., Maize is sensitive to water logging., , •, •, •, , Seminal roots present in maize to nourished seedling plants., Maize is monoecious plant having two different types o f, inflorescences., If maize is sowing in east -west direction it helps to augment, the grain productivity due to greater availability of light., , •, , (NET -2001), •, , In the persons which wholly depended on maize lead to a, disease called 'pellagra' due to low content of vitamin B, complex, niacin and tryptophan in maize., , •, , The terminal male flower clusters are called tassel, it is a, branched, , •, •, •, , •, , panicle, , bearing, , of, , pollen, , or, , staminate, , inflorescence., The style is a very long silky filament, bears the female hairy, cluster of which is known as "silk"., The female pistillate inflorescence also called the ear or cob,, comes out from a node generally half way on the stem., Idea of hybrid maize was first conceived by E.M. East and, G.H. Shull in 1910 by single cross technique among the, inbred lines., , An inbred line is a 'pure line' developed by self pollination, and selection until apparently homozygous plants are, obtained. (ICS Exam -1993), , Agronomy
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•, , D.F. Jones (1920) proposed the use of Double cross, technique for hybrid seed production., • At present double cross techniques are mostly used in India., Classification of maize on the basis of endosperm characters:, Shurtevant (1899) classified into seven groups:Dent corn, , Zea, , mays, , bidet:1114a, , 2, , Flint corn, , 3, , Sweet corn, , 4, , Flour corn, , 5, , Pop corn, , 6, , ,, , Zea mays, indurata, Zea mays, saccharata, , Zea mays, _ amylacea, Zea mays, everta, , Waxy corn, , Zea mays, ceratina, , Pod corn, , Zea mays, junicata, , 7, , The kernel of the dent corn appears like a tooth so named as dent corn, extensively, , grown in the USA., Its kernel is hard and smooth, commonly, cultivated in India., Known as sweet corn, the sweet corn, kernel present a transluscent and horny, appearance before maturity. This corn is, chiefly cultivated to produce kernels for, the canning industry., Kernels almost entirely consist of soft, starch so also name soft corn., When pop corn grains are heated, the, endosperm cracks open due to the vapour, pressure consequently releasing the loose, floury mass. Its is chiefly used to prepare, the food products like corn flakes, corn, chips and pop corn etc., ,, The waxy corn caryopsis has two -layered, endosperm, and it is used to produce, starch., Husked, primitive type of corn, no, significantly importance., , Varieties:, • First time in India (1961), four double cioss hybrids were, •, •, •, , released: Ganga-1, Ganga-101, Deccan, and Ranjeet., Mahi Kanchan and Mahi Dhavan varieties of maize, originating from Rajasthan., Top cross varieties: Ganga-2 and Hi -Starch., A top cross hybrid is obtained by combing an inbred line and, an open -pollinated variety., , Agronomy, , 108, , A Competitive Book of Agriculture
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•, , In 1967, six composites were released: Vikram, Vijay,, Amber, Kisan, Jawahar & Sona., • In 1971, Lysine rich Opaque -2 composites Protina (4%, lysine), Shakti and Rattan were released., • Synthetic variety: Means their advanced generations of a, multiple hybrid increased by open -pollination e.g. Amber, • New varieties of quality protein maize (QPM) have released, by using Opaque -2 gene e.g. Shaktiman-1, Shaktiman-2, and HQPM-1., • Optimum plant population in Kharif is 65,000-70,000, plants/ha., ieed rate:, • 15-20 kg seeds/ha is recommended for kharif crop., • 25 kg/ha for hybrid maize., • 40-50 kg/ha is recommended for fodder purpose., Critical stages for water:, • For moisture and nutrients point of view period between, tasseling and silking stage is critical., Important question:, • Suitable temperature for growing of Zea mays: 32 °C., • Commonly herbicide used in maize is: Simazine (0.5-1.0 kg), • Hybrid varieties of maize: Sangum/Ganga safed, • Double cross techniques of prod. of maize introduced by:D.F, Jones (1920)., • On maize plant, first appearance is: Tassels (male flower)., • Water requirement for the maize crop is: 500-800mm., • Protein content of maize: 10%, • Rabi maize is extensively grown in: Bihar, • White bud: In maize due to deficiency of zinc the apical, leaves become white.
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Bajra: Pcnnisettan americaumn., •, , Bajra is known by different names like cattail millet, candle, millet, dark millet, spiked millet etc., Highest quantity of minerals (2.7%) are found in bajra among, , •, , the cereals., Rajasthan having first position both in area and production, , •, •, , In pearl millet the roots coming out from the second and third, nodes provide support to the plant and are called prop or, brace roots., • Highest drought tolerant crop among cereals & millets., • Among the cereals, the water requirement for pearl millet is, lowest (250mm)., • In pearl millet the inflorescence is predominantly, protogynous and therefore stigmas are seen a few days, before the appearance of anthers which greatly facilitate, natural cross-pollination., Varieties:, Pusa moti, , Hybrids:, • Tift 23 -Al was the first male sterile line of pearl millet., • First hybrid: HB-1 released in 1965 from Ludhiana. Its cross, of Tift 23-A (male sterile) x Bil 3B., • HHB-67, BJ-104, Pusa moti are other, • Napier grass: For development of forage variety PUSS, napier-1; the first inter -specific hybridization was carried out, in 1947 between Pennisetum purpureum x Pennisetum, glaucum., 6., , •, •, , Jim a r: .S.Orgh UM bicolor., , First hybrid of sorghum: CSH-1, Jowar is native of: Africa, , ronOMV, , 110, , A Competitive Book of Agrkulture
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•, , Witch weed (Striga spp.) a root parasite weed, which is a, major problem in sorghum production., • Seed rate of Jowar: 10-12 kg/ha, • Seed rate for fodder purpose: 40-50 kg/ha., • The best high yield variety of Rabi Jowar is: M35-1, •, Drought and salinity tolerant variety of sorghum is: CSH-9, • Sorghum is considered as camel crop because of: Resistance, to drought., •, Most important male sterile variety: Combine kafir-60., • Sorghum crop for fodder purpose should be used after 50%, flowering because sorghum leaves at knee stage possess a, high amount of hydrocyanic acid (HC1V) or dhurrin/prussic, acid which is poisonous to the animals. (ICS Exam -1993), Under drought condition if animal is grassed of sorghum, leaves with 0.5g of HCN may be die., Sorghum is called the camel of desert because it produces, , •, •, , good yields under high temperature and low soil moisture., SUga rcane (Suecharum, , Vicinarum), , •, , Also, , •, , The word "Saccharam" derived from "Sanskrit" word, , known, , as, , Noble, , cane,, , developed, , by, , T.S., , Vankataraman., sarkara" which means sugar., , ,1 Sugar industry is the largest agro based processing industry, , after textiles in India., 1, , In India (2006) there are about 582 sugar factories maximum, , 1, , in Maharashtra (134) ., The maximum sugar factories (317) are in cooperative sector, , followed by private sector (203 factories)., Area and distribution:, • Area:, India > Brazil > Cuba, • Production:, Brazil > India > China, " Productivity: Peru (115 t/ha) > Australia, Agronomy, , 111, , A Competitive Book of Agriculture
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Area & Production (India):, • Area:, UP > Maharashtra > Tamil Nadu, • Production:, UP > Maharashtra > Karnataka, • Productivity: Tamil Nadu (99.3 t/ha.), Botany:, • Family: Graminae (poaceae)., • 2n=80, perennial plant., • Inflorescence of sugarcane known as Arrow which is an, open branched panicle., •, C4, intermediate short day plant., Origin: New Guinea, Classification: there are three cultivated and two wild species., 1. S. officinarum: Noble/thick and juicy cane, low fiber, content: 2n = 80., 2. S. Barbari: Indian cane, medium sucrose and high fiber, content, 2n = 82-124., 3. S. sinense: Chinese cane, medium sucrose, high fiber, content, 2n = 118, Wild species:, 1. S. spontaneum: Very low sugar and very high fiber content., 2. S. robustum: Very low sugar, Seeds and sowing:, • Material used for sowing is known as seed pieces or sets., • Top 1/3 to 1/2 portion of cane being comparatively immature, having high glucose content good for germination., • Three budded: 35,000-40,000 setts/ha (which can be, obtained from 75-80 qt. of cane)., • Sets should be treated with 0.5% solution of Agallol., Time of planting:, 1. Autumn planting: planting in October in N. India., 2. Adsali planting: planting in June -July in S. India and takes 1518 months for harvesting., 3. Eksali planting: Jan. -Feb. in S. India and takes about one year, time for harvesting., Agronomy, , 112, , A Competitive Book of Agriculture
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planting methods:, 1. Flat planting:, • Planted shallow 8-10 cm deep furrows at 75-90 cm distance, • It followed in N. India., 2. Furrow method:, • Particularly in heavy soils., •, , Adopted 10-15 cm deep furrow in N. India, , • About 20 cm deep furrow in S. India., 3. Trench method:, • Followed in tall growing cane areas such as coastal areas to, protect from lodging., , Manures and fertilizer:, • Heavy feeder crop but higher doses of nitrogen during, ripening stage decrease sucrose content in maturing canes., • Blanked application of nitrogen (120-150kg): phosphorus, (80 kg): potash (60 kg)., • The best source of nitrogen in normal soil is Ammonium, sulphate, in saline soil is urea and in acidic soil is used CAN., Irrigation stages:, Phase, Duration, 1. Germination, 0-60 DAP, 2. Formative, 60-130 DAP (maximum requirement, of water in this stage), 3. Grand growth, 130-250 DAP, 4. Maturity, 250-365 (DAP = Days after planting), • Furrow method of irrigation is most common method of, •, •, , irrigation in sugar cane., Under high temperature, sucrose gets converted into glucose, and quality of the produce becomes poor., Ratooning of sugarcane: it is economical to take only one, ratoon crop, in ratoon crop 20% more nitrogen required as, , compare to planted crop., •, , Artificial ripening of sugarcane: Polaris, Glyphosine @ 5 kg, a.i. /ha., , Agronomy, , 113, , A Competitive Book of Agriculture
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Blind hoeing:, • An important practice in sugarcane, hoeing after planting and, before crop emergences for the purpose of weed control., Harvesting: cane maturity measures as:, a. Brix ratio:, • Sugarcane consider mature if brix value or, refractometer reading is 16-18., • For brix reading juice should be taken from middle, portion of stalk., b. Fehling test:, • For maturation of cane Fehling test solution reading, should be less than 0.5% glucose., Crop logging:, • H.F. Clements in Hawaii developed the concept of crop, logging., • It is the foliar diagnosis comparing the nutrient status of, comparable leaves of high and low yield crop plants generally, used in sugarcane in Hawaii., Crop lodging:, • The falling down of crop due to strong wind,, • It prevented by trench planting, earthling up, wrapping and, propping., Water lodging:, • The falling down of crop due to flooding, • I.e. saturation of both macro and micro pore., By-products of sugarcane:, 1. Bagasses:, Used for fuel and paper making. (RAS-2013), 2. Molasses:, For alcohol production., 3. Press mud:, (Contain lime), reclamation of acidic soils., • In Brazil, sugarcane is also used as a source of energy., •, Gasohol is prepared from 80% petrol + 20% alcohol (from, sugarcane) which are used in automobiles., Important questions:, • Inflorescence of sugarcane is called as: Arrow, Agronomy, , 114, , 4 Competitive Book of Agriculture
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•, •, •, , Higher dose of nitrogen decrease the: Sucrose content, Most critical stage for irrigation is: Formative stage, Most popular planting method in the north India: Flat bed, planting, Brix reading should be for the proper maturity: 16-18% TSS, (total soluble solids), Soils which are unsuitable for sugar cane are: Saline soils, Noble cane is: Saccharum officinarum., Adsali sugarcane planted in: June -July (18 month crop)., State, have highest productivity of sugarcane: TN, Earthing in sugar cane should be done in: June -July., Tying should be done in the month of: August, Spacing row to row: 90 cm, Name of wild cane: Saccharum spontaneous, Burning of canes is done for: Improve sucrose & juice, quality., , •, •, •, •, •, •, •, , •, •, •, •, , cane indigenous to, Saccharum barberi., , Indian, , 8., , north, , and, , eastern, , India:, , Chick-pea/Bengal g ra iiilgra m : Cicer aretimmi, , •, I, , Gram is rich source of calcium, iron and niacin., Used as blood purifier and germinated seeds are, recommended to cure scurvy disease., , ,f, , India is the largest producer of gram in the world sharing, , •, , 65% area & 70% of total global production., Major pulse crop in India and share largest acreage and, , production among the pulse crop in the country, followed by, pigeon pea., Origin of place: Afghanistan (Persia), Area and distribution:, • Area:, India > Pakistan > Turkey, • Production:, India > Turkey > Pakistan, , In India:, Agronomy, , 115, , A Competitive Book of Agriculture
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•, , Area:, Production:, , •, , MP > Raj > UP, MP > Raj > UP, , Classification:, I. Desi or brown gram (C. aretinum), 2n = 14, 16, ,7, , Most widely grown., , Good branching., s7 Yellow to dark brown seed, , '7, , '7 small sized, • Cosmopolitan in nature., 1' Test weight: 140-200g, , Kabuli/white gram (C. kabulim), 2n = 16, •./ Bold attractive white seed, 1' Test weight: 340-375 g, • Its poor yielder as compare to desi gram., Botany:, • Family: Leguminaceae, sub family: Papilionaceae, • The sour taste of leaves and pods is due to the presence oi, Mallic acid 90-96% and Oxalic acid 4-10%, about 4-10 kg oi, these acid can be obtained from one ha crop., • Tap root system, cloddy and rough seed bed is required to, provide adequate aeration for proper germination of seeds, •, C3, long day plant., • Gram is highly susceptible to frost at flowering stage., Varieties:, Desi gram:, 2., , Variety, , Features, , Avrodhi:, , Wilt resistant, , Pusa-256/BG 256:, , Most common and best for Rainfed conditior, , C-235:, , Widely adopted for dry land, tolerant, Ascochyta blight., _, , Gaurav:, , Resistant to Ascochyta blight., , RS -11:, , Mutant variety, , ICCC-2:, , Short duration variety, , Agronomy, , 116, , _, -, , A Competitive Book of Agriculture
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imago, Aparna (2006):, , Grains remain in green colour, , Other varieties:, , Chaffa, RSG-2, GNG-16, Radhey., , Kabuli:, • C-104, K-4, , Preparation of Seed bed:, •, , Rough seed bed is required for gram to provide good, aeration., • Sowing: rd fortnight of October is optimum time., • Seed rate: 80-100 kg ‘seeds/ha., • Spacing: Row to Row 30 x 10 at the depth of 6-8cm., •, Delayed planting increases the incidence of (pod borer), Helicoverpa armigera., •, Early and shallow sown crop is more liable to be damaged, by wilt., Irrigation management:, •, Pre -flowering and pod development are the most critical, stages., Practices in gram:, Nipping and topping:, • Pruning of top branches of the plants to encourage, reproductive growth, • Practice at 50-60 days after sowing, • It can be done by a flock of sheep., • Chemical for nipping: TIBA @ 75 PPM i.e. Tri-iodobenzoic Acid., • Yield of gram 20-25 q/ha., Important points:, • Root system of gram is: Tap root system, • Sour test of gram leaf is due to: Maleic & oxalic acid, • Best variety for dry land is: C-235, • Sowing time of gram is: 15 October- 20 Oct., • Gram fruit is known as: Pod, • Protein content of gram: 21 %, Agronomy, , 117, , A Competitive Book of Agriculture
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•, •, , Deep sowing of gram is protect from: Wilt disease, Critical stage for irrigation: Pre flowering, pod development, stage., , Pigeon pea: Cajanns cajun, •, , Known as red grP•, , •, , Most dr ,, , ,, , LS, , - -har/tur, tolerant among pulses., , Origin: Africa, Classification:, I. C. cajun var. bicolor:, • Perennial, tall, much branched, N/ Late maturity, 4-5 grains/pod, ✓, Commonly grown in North India., 2. C. cajan var. flavus:, .4 Annual, Short plant, ,7 Early maturity, 2-3 grains/pod., ‘,/ Mainly grown in South India as a seed crop., , Area and distribution:, • Area:, India > Malari > Uganda, • Production:, Same trend in area and production, In India:, • Area:, Maharashtra > UP > Karnataka, • Production:, UP > MH > Gujarat, • Productivity: Bihar > UP, • In India 90% area and 85% production on Global basis., Botany: Features, ✓, Deep rooted, self pollinated., • Hypogeal germination., ✓, C3, short day plant., ✓, Hardy crop, most drought tolerant crop among major, pulses., Varieties:, a. Short duration:, • UPAS-120:, It takes about 120-125 days., Agronomy, , A Competitive Book of Agriculture
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•, •, , Prabhat:, ICPH-8:, , Extra -early, 110-120 days, l st hybrid of arhar in world developed at, ICRISAT, Hyderabad, 1991., , • PPH-4, ICPL-15, b. Medium duration: 150-180 days, • BDN1, 2,, • C-11, • Mulcta (wilt resistant)., c. Long duration: 180-300 days., • PUSA-9., Seeds and sowing:, • Seed rate: 12-15 kg/ha., • Spacing: 60 x 15 cm., •, , Plant population for kharif is: 55,000 plants/ha, Plant population for winter crop: 3.33 lakh plants/ha, Sowing time: 1st fortnight of June,, , •, , •, , • Harvesting Index is: 19% lowest in among pulses, Important points:, • Botanical name of Arhar: Cajanus Capri., • Origin of arhar: South Africa., • Sowing of arhar: 15 June, • Highest production of arhar in: UP, • Protein content of arhar is: 25% ., • Highest productivity of arhar: Bihar (1115 kg/ha)., 10. Cotton, (Gos.sypiiiiii sp.), , •, •, , White gold, King of appraisal fiber., Bt cotton is effective against boll worm pest complex of, , cotton., In India Bt. Cotton is grown about 8.4 Mha (86% of total, cotton area) in 2009. (ARS/NET-2009), Origin: India, V, , Agronomy, , 119, , A Competitive Book of Agriculture
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Area and distribution:, • Area:, India > USA > China, • Production:, China > USA > India, , In India:, • Area:, • Production:, , •, , M11 > AP>Gujarat, MH > A P> Haryana, , Botany:, ,7 Family: Malvaceae., • Cultivated cotton is annual., ,( Tap root system., Two type of branches:, 1. Monopodial: Vegetative branches, 2. Sympodial: Reproductive branches, Classification:, Out of 20 species of cotton only 4 are cultivated., 1. G. arborium: 2n = 26, diploid, 2. G. herbaceum: 2n = 26, diploid, • These above two are known as desi cotton/old world/Asiatic, cotton., 3. G. hirsutum: 2n=52, tetraploids. Generally called American, • cotton., 4. G. barbadence:, 2n=52, tetraploids. Highest fiber length 3.65.0 cm., • These two species are known as Egyptian/sea Island cotton., India: is the only country in the world where all four species of, cotton are grown on commercial scale besides hybrid., 40 % area, • Hybrid:, • G. hirsutum: 36 % area, • G. arborium: 16 % area, • G. herbaceum-: 8% area, • G. bardadence: 0.2 % area., Varieties:, • G. arborium:, Lohit,Virnar, • G. herbaceum: Digvijay,Sanj ay, Agronomy, , 120, , A Competitive Book of Agriculture
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•, , G. hirsutum:, Ganganagar agety, Bikaneri nerma., • G. barbadence: Suvin and Sujata (sujata is the first spinning, variety of Egyptian cotton released in India)., Hybrid varieties:, a. II -4:, • It was first commercially hybrid variety of cotton., • Developed in the world by crossing G-67 x American, , Nectorless by Dr. C.T. Patel of GAU, Surat in 1970., • It's a cross of intra hirsutum., b. Varalaxmi:, • It is 1st interspecific hybrid between G. hirsutum and G., barbadence, • Released from UAS, Dharwad. (RPSC-AO-2012), c. MCU-5:, • It is extra long staple variety of cotton (SRF-09)., d. Maru Vikas/Raj., • It's 1st hybrid of hirsutum in Rajasthan (JRF-09)., Savita, Surya:, • Intra specific hybrid of hirsutum., F. Dhanlaxmi:, Delinting/deffusing:, • Done with concentrate sulphuric acid in a ratio of acid to, cotton seed about 1:10., • This helps in grading the seed, • Kill hibernating insect stages, • Destroy the diseased pathogens, • It makes seeds easy to sowing & germinates rapidly., Seed rate:, • Desi cotton: 10-18 kg at 67.5 x 30 cm spacing, • American cotton:15-25 kg at 67.5 x 30cm spacing, • Hybrid cotton: 2-3 kg at 100 x 60 cm spacing., • Optimum population: 50,000-80,000 (average 66,000)., • For Bt cotton: 1-1.5 kg/ha (ay. 10,000 plant population), Sowing time:, Agronomy, , 121, , A Competitive Book of Agriculture
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•, , North India:, , •, , Central India: Last week of June to first week of July., , •, , In Tamil Nadu: September - October, , 1st fortnight of May., , Ultra Narrow Row:, • The concept of ultra -narrow -row (UNR) was developed in, USA in which the Row to Row and Plant to Plant spacing, kept 19 x 19 cm 2., • Keeping a plant population of 2, 77,000 plants/ha., Square in cotton:, • The appearance of flower bud in cotton., Topping:, • Removal of terminal growing point once from each plant at, a height of 1-1.2 m (80-90 DAS) to protect further terminal, growth and to encourage sympodial branching and good boll, development by diverting the energy flow., Ginnine/o:, • Separation of fiber from the seed cotton is known as ginning,, • In general its ranges 30-35%., Weeds management:, • Important weed flora-Trianthima, Echinochola, Diseria etc., • Pre-emergence/post emergence spray of diuron (mostly, used) @ 0.5 kg a.i. /ha., • Cotton is highly sensitive to 2, 4-D & glyphosate, injured by, a spray drift., • 2, 4-D resistant cotton- gene-tfd-A, Physiological disorder:, 1. Tirak/bad ball opening/pre-mature defective opening of balls, , due to early sowing, water stress on light sandy or in alkaline, soils., 2. Red leaf: American cotton more susceptible, leaves turn red &, rolled downward. In severely affected plants the whole lamina, becomes red, leaving the veins green., 3. Little leaf in cotton: due to Zn deficiency., 4. Crinkle leaf of cotton: due to Mn toxicity., Agronomy, , 122, , A Competitive Book of Agriculture
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Important points:, •, , Fiber length and fiber fineness are: Genetic traits., Origin of cotton: India, Lint per cent in cotton is: 33 %, , •, •, •, , Fiber maturity measured by: Arealometer, Fiber thickness by: Nepiness, Spinning performance measured by: Number of counts, One bale of cotton: 170 kg., Oil content in cotton seed varies from: 14.5 to 25.6%, Toxic pigment/phenol compound present in cotton seed is:, Gossypol., Cotton fiber is an elongation/outgrowth of an epidermal, cell of seed coat., , •, •, •, •, •, •, , 11. Jute (Corchorm. spp.): F. Tilliaccae, 1, 1, , Most important fiber crop in India., India's first rank in both area and production of jute in, , 1, , world., In India West Bengal has first position both in area and, , 1, , C. olitorius known as meth-pat/tossa. Grown on well, , 1, , drained high lands only., C. capsularis known white jute/tita, due to presence of, glycoside `Corcharin'. Covers 70% area of total jute, , production., , cultivation., 1, 1, , Weight of one bale of jute is: 180 kg, Seed rate of jute: 6-8 kg/ha, , Harvesting:, • Optimum time of harvesting is about 90 DAS, but this stage, •, , the grain yield low., So to obtain quality fiber and good yield jute is harvest at, small pod stage i.e. 135-140 DAS., , Agronomy, , 123, , A Competitive Book of Agriculture
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Ribboning:, •, , This practice is very common in China and Taiwan, but not, , •, , popular in India, It consists of peeled out of raw bark from the green plant,, immediately after harvest and bundles of the ribbons thus, , obtained are retied., Retting:, •, It is a microbial process in which aerobic and anaerobic, bacteria and fungi loosen the fiber by decomposing &, dissolving the pectin, hemicelluloses and other cementing, •, •, •, , agents., It completes within 8-30 days., , Slow moving clear water best for good retting., Optimum temperature required for retting is about 34 0 c., I 2. Potato (S'o/unrini //Mews'/nil), , ,1, , King of vegetable., , ,4, , Cash crop (high marketable value per unit area)., Rich source of starch i.e. farina and vitamin especially B1, , Origin: Peru (South America), True potato seed (TPS):, • Developed by Ramanujan, • 100-150 g seeds/ha in nursery is sufficient., Area and distribution:, • Area:, Uttar Pradesh > West Bengal > Bihar, • Production:, Same trend as area, • Potato occupies largest area under any single vegetable in the, World., Botany:, , / Perennial plant but as a crop treated as an annual plant., ,4 Propagation by tubers i.e. an enlarged underground stem, produced on the end of a stolon and not on the root properly., , Agronomy, , 124, , A Competitive Book of Agriculture
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short day plant from tuberization point of view while, flowering point of view long day plant., , C3,, , V Fruit type is berry and potato requires temperature for, , satisfied tuber growth 17-19 °C., p" requirement about 5.0-6.5, as acidic condition reduces, scab disease incidence., Varieties:, a. Early maturity: Takes only 75 days, • Kufri chandramukhi, • K. ashoka (extra early), • K. alankar, K. lavkar and K. navtal, b. Medium duration, • K. sheetman (Frost resistant variety), • K. chamatkar, • K. badshah, c. Late maturity:, • K. deva, • K. sinduri, d. Suitable for processing:, • K. chipsona-1, • K. chipsona-2, Seed sowing:, • 25 g cut (piece) of tuber with 3-5 buds/eyes @ 15-20 q/ha, • As getting high yield @ 20-25 q/ha for 15g/seed, • Spacing: 60 x 20cm, Seed plot technique (S PT):, • Developed by Pushkarnath et al. in 1967, • It is a technique of multiplication of disease free (Virus free), seed in Northern plains of Country., , Disorders:, a. Black heart: Due to lack of 0 2 in stored potato the internal, tissues break down and become black. Avoid staorage, temperature above 35 C and poor ventilation., , Agronom y, , •, , 125, , aMMINIIMOMMINE., , A Competitive Book of Agriculture
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b. Rollo heart: due to excessive use of N -fertilizer, an irregular, cavity in the centre of tubers develops., c. Chilling injury: Due to prolonged storage of tubers at, temperature of about 0 °C., Important points:, • Dormancy breaker: May be used 1% Thiourea with I ppm, of GA3for 10 minutes., • Fertilizer KCL not used in solanaceae crops because, chloride has adverse effect on dry matter and starch content, of potato., • The stolen formation (20-50 DAP) and tuber elongation, (50-80 DAP) are most critical stages of irrigation., • Insect of potato which infect the tubers in field as well as, storage is : Potato tuber moth (Gnorimoschema operculella), • Potato leaf roll viruses is transmitted by: Aphids (Myzus, persicae)., • Wart disease of potato is due to: Fungus (Synchitrium, •, , endobioticum), Domestic quarantine is adapted (transport of planting, materials i.e. tubers from Darjeeling area to other parts of the, country is restricted due to wart disease., 1 3. G round lint: .-1rach is hypogea, , • Known as Peanut/earthnut/monkey nut, • Contains 45% oil in kernel, • And 26% protein in kernels, Origin: Brazil, • Area:, India > China > Nigeria, • Production:, China > India > Nigeria, In India:, • Area:, AP > Gujarat > TN., • Production:, Gujarat > AP > TN, • Productivity: Tamil Nadu (17 q/ha), Agronomy, , 126, , A Competitive Book of Agriculture
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Classification:, • Bunch type/erect type: A. hypogea var. fastigiata, • Spreading/trailing type: A. hypogeal var. procumbens., Botany:, • Family: Leguminaceae, • Self pollinated, •, C3, short day plants, • Fruit known as pods., Dormancy:, • Bunch type non dormant while spreading type is dormant, which require a resting period of 2-2.5 months for, germination,, • It can be broken by high temperature, storage and use of, ethylene chloro'nydrins @ 0.7% and seed soaking in 5-10, PPM solution of NAA, IAA., Important variety:, • Bunch type:, Jyoti, • Spreading type:, Chandra, Soils:, " Light texture, sandy loam soil is excellent., • Ammonium sulphate and SSP are excellent source of N &, P. respectively., • Popping in Groundnut: pods without kernels or unfilled, grains due to Calcium deficiency., • Application of 250 kg gypsum/ha at pre -flowering stage (30, DAS), which is essential for pod formation and, development., • Generally sowing time is last week of May to 1" fortnight of, June., • Aflatoxin contamination in Groundnut (fungal infection of, Groundnut kernel) caused by Aspergillus flavits due to high, moisture content in stored kernels. (RPSC-2009), " Management of Aflatoxin is storage of kernels at 8 %, moisture level., Agronomy, , 127, , A Competitive Book 0/ Agriculture
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Important points:, • Botanical name of ground nut: Arachis hypogea, • Origin of ground nut: Brazil, • State which is largest producer: Gujarat, • Shelling percentage: 70 %, • Oil percentage: 40-45%, • Nitrogen % in groundnut cake: 7.8 %, • Best soil for ground nut production: Sandy, • Spacing of ground nut: 30 x 10 cm, • High yield type of ground nut: Spreading type, • Pegging stage comes after: 55 DAS, • Chemical used for floral initiation: NAA @ 40 PPM., • Fruit of ground nut known as: Nut., • Herbicide used for groundnut is: Tok E-25, • Bitterness of kernel due to: Aflatoxin., • Protein content in ground nut: 26 %, • Gynophores of ground nut are known as: Peg., • Yellowing of groundnut leaves due to: Iron deficiency, • Rosette disease is due to: Virus (vector aphids), • Major pest of ground nut: White grub., • Bud necrosis in ground nut due to: Thrips, I -4. Soybean: Glysine m ay, V known as wonder crop or yellow jewel, .4 World first rank crop as a source of vegetable oil., .4 Soybean is the major oilseed crop in the World accounts for, 50% of the total area as well as production., V' It provides approximately 60% of vegetable protein & 30%, of oil in the World., ✓ Contains 42 per cent protein (rich, in lysine) and 20 per cent, oil., Origin: China, Area and distribution:, Agronomy, , 128, , A Competitive Book
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In India:, , •, •, s, , Area:, Production:, Productivity:, , MP > MH < Rajasthan, MP > MH < Rajasthan, Andhra Pradesh (>40 Oa), , Botany:, , '1 Family:, Leguminaceae., 1 Inflorescence:, Raceme, 1 Fruit:, Pod, • Soyabean is: C3,, short day plant., Varieties:, a. Introduced from USA are:, • Bragg, Lee, • Kent, Clark -63, • Blackheart, b. Indian varieties:, • Shilajeet, • Ankur, Seeds and sowing:, , Alankar, Punjab -1, , Sowing time is: 3 rd week of June to 1st fortnight of July., Spacing:, 45-60 x 15-20 cm., •7 Depth of sowing: 3 cm., •4 Seed rate:, 70-80 kg/ha, ✓, Plant population: 300,000-400,000 plants/ha., Weed management:, • Major weeds are: Eichinocola colonum, Cyprus rotandus,, Sorghum helepense and Trianthema., Management:, /, , ", •, , PPI application (Pre plant incorpotion) of Fluchlorin, lkg/ha., Pre -emergence application of Alachlor/Metribuzin @ 1-1.5, kg/ha., , Agronomy, , 129, , A Competitive Book of Agriculture
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•, •, •, , India is the largest producers, consumer and exporter of, tea in the World., In India Assam has first position in production, , •, , Another growing area is Darjeeling (West Bengal), Nilgiree, hills (TN) etc., The best method of plucking is two leaves and a bud., , •, , Imperata cylindrica (thatch grass) important weed of tea., , I 7. Tobacco, •, , Sodie soils are unfit for tobacco production because the, plants absorb a lot of chloride ions (Cl-) which results in a, poor burning quality of leaves and a mild acidic soils (pH, 5-6) are always better for the production of superior quality, leaves., • Nicotine is produced mainly in roots and is carried through, stem to leaves where it is stored., • First hybrid variety of tobacco in India is: GTH-1, Indian tobacco has two spp., a. Nicotiana tabacum, '1 Plant height 150-250 cm., 1 Large and narrow leaf, •( Nicotine content is 0.5-5.5%, '•( Used for smoking and chewing purpose, s( Grown on light soils., b. Nicotiana rustica, •( Plant smaller than tabacum, 1 Nicotine content is 3.5-8.0%., ,f Used for hookah, chewing and snuff purpose., `f Mostly grown on heavy soils., Indian tobacco (are grouped in to):, a. Flue Cured Virginia (FCV):, • Cigarette tobacco, • Major exportable type, Agronomy, , 131
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•, , Covers 30% area and 20% production of total., b. Non -Virginia types:, • Bidi, hookah and chewing tobacco, •, , 70% area and 80 % production of total tobacco, , Important operations:, Topping:, •, • Removal of flower heads either alone or with few upper/top, leaves from the plant to improve the size, and quality of, leaves., b. De -suckering:, • After topping, auxiliary buds grow; removal of such lateral, branches or suckers/auxiliary buds is called de -suckering., • The main aim of topping and de -suckering is to divert, energy and nutrient from flower head to leaves., c. Priming:, • Removal of matured leaves, • Entire harvest needs 5-6 priming, • Used in cigarette and wrapper tobacco., d. Curing:, • It is essentially a drying process whereby most of the, moisture of leaf is removed to impart required colour,, texture and aroma to the final product, • E.g. Flue curing used for cigarette process., , a., , I 8. Buck ‘‘ heal: Phagoprra esculanium, , I, I, •, 1, •, , Family: Polygenaceae, Known as pseudocereal, , Fruit of buck wheat is known as: Achene, Tokyo is the variety of buck wheat, Leaves and flower contains alkaloid: Rutin, , Sowing time of buck wheat: June -July, , Agronomy, , 132
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Crop cultivation terminology:, 1. Arable crops: Crops which require preparatory tillage eg. Potato,, tobacco, rice, sugarcane, maize., 2. Alley crops: Crops such as sweet potato, urd, turmeric and ginger, are grown in the passages formed by the rows of eucalyptus,, subabool and cassia mainly to hasten soil fertility restoration,, enhance soil productivity and reduce soil erosion, 3. Augmenting crop: These crops supplement the yield of the main, crops e.g. Sowing of mustard with berseem or lucerne to get, higher yield in the first cutting., 4. Avenue crops: These crops are grown along farm road and fences, eg. Arhar, sisal, glyricidia., 5. Cash crops: Such crops are grown for sale to earn hard cash e.g., Jute, cotton, tobacco, sugarcane., 6. Catch crops: These are gown as substitute for the main crop that, has failed on account of unfavorable condition. They are of very, short duration, quick growing, early harvestable or usable at any, time eg. Moong, urd, cowpea, onion., 7. Cole crops: Cole crops are essentially cold weather crops, belonging to the family cruciferae and capable for withstanding, considerable frost eg. Cabbage, cauliflower and sprout., 8. Cover crops/ Mulch crops: These crops are grown mainly to, cover the soil and to reduce soil moisture and erosion by wind and, water e.g. Lobia, groundnut, urd, sweet potato etc., 9. Complementary crops: In this cropping each other crop is, benefited by intercropping e.g. Jowar + lobia. Jowar receives, nitrogen from lobia and lobia requires support from jowar., 10. Ley crops: Such crops are grown for grazing or harvesting for, immediate or future feeding to livestock eg. Berseem, mustard., I I.Nurse crop: These crops are nourished other crops by providing, , shade and acting as climbing sticks eg. Rai/mustard in peas and, jowar in cowpea.
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12.Paired row cropping: Each third row is removed or growing of, crops in paired row is called paired row cropping. It is suitable for, dry land and objective is to conserve moisture., 13.Restorative crops: Such crops provide a good harvest along with, enrichment or restoration or amelioration of soil eg. Legumes., 14.Skip cropping: A line is left unsown in the regular row series of, sowing is called skip cropping., 15.Smother crops: These crops provides large canopy and quick, growing ability e.g. Cowpea, mustard, sorghum., 16.Trap crop/decoy crops: Grown on boundary of the field to attract, insect pests and soil borne harmful biotic agents such as parasitic, weeds e.g. Orobanche (weed) is trapped by solanaceae plants., 17.Silage crops: Such crops are grown to preserve in pits in a, succulent condition by a process of natural fermentation or, acidification for feeding livestock during lean months or offseason, e.g. berseem, cowpea. ., 18.Mixed farming: It is a system of farming on a particular farm, which includes crop production, livestock, poultry, fisheries, bee, keeping sustaining and satisfying as many needs of the farmer as, possible., 19.Crop rotation: Refers to the sequence of crops grown on the same, land in a recurring succession., , 20.Mono cropping/mono culture: Refers to growing of only one, crop on a piece of land year after year., 21 Multiple cropping: Growing two or more crops on the same piece, of land in one calendar year is known as multiple crops. It includes, inter cropping, mixed cropping and sequence cropping., • Inter cropping: Growing two or more crops simultaneously, •, •, , on the same piece of land with a define row pattern., Mixed cropping: Growing two or more crops simultaneously, intermingled without any row pattern., Sequence cropping: As growing of two or more crops in, sequence on the same piece of land in farming year., , Agronomy, , 134, , A Competitive Book of Agriculture
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12.gday cropping: Refers to growing a second crop boween the, rows of the main crop which is ready to harvest shortly.., 13.1Intooning: The practice of tacl, in the second crop from pre look, one is known as Ratoonink
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eed sc ience, •, , Weed as a plant growing where it is not desired., , Important points:, Jethrotull is called as father of weed science., V Weeds cause drastically annual losses to Indian agriculture, which is more than the combined losses caused by insect -pest, and diseases., V In India 25% of crop losses due to weeds., ,7 Congress grass or carrot grass i.e. Parthenium hysteropholus, and sneeze weed Helenium spp responsible for dermal, allergies in human beings., • Allelopathy: any direct/ indirect harmful effect, one plant has, , •, ✓, , ✓, , on another through the production of chemical compounds, that escape in to environment known as allelopathy. These, chemicals are secondary metabolites., Weeds interfere with crops as competition + allelopathy., Johnson grass S. helepens at its Tellering stage is poisonous, to animal due to their high prussic acid/HCN (Dhurin), content., Dropsy: Mexican poppy i.e. Argemone mexicana seeds, mixed with mustard seeds and crushed brought death and, , blindness in human being. Dropsy tragedy has occurred in, Delhi in 1998., •, , Censer mechanism: e.g. Argemone mexican the wind, swings the intact plant and forces their mature pods to, disperse seeds some distance away from the mother plant., Vegetable propagation of weeds:, Weeds, Prorogation, • Bermuda grass, Rh izome/runners/stolons, • Tiger grass, Rhizome, • Johanson grass, Rhizome, • Purple nut sedge, Tubers, Agronomy, , 136, , A Competitive Book of Agrieultunr„
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•, , Waterhycinth, , Offsets, , Weed act as host for insect -pest and diseases:, , 60,VP4, , _, Insect-pest/disease, Echinochola colonum, Stem borer, Chenopodium album, Gram caterpillar, Agropyron portulaca, Wilt, Cenchurus ciliaris, Ergot, Leersia oryzoides, Bacterial leaf blight, Saccharum spontaneum Downy mildew, Agropyron repens, Rust, , Crop affected, Rice, Cotton, pea, and tomato, Tomato, Pearl millet, Rice, Maize, Wheat, , Weed dormancy:, •, It is a stage of suspended development, Three type:, • Enforced: Due to deeper placement of seeds., • Innate dormancy: Genetically controlled dormancy., • Induced: Due to sudden physio changes like water logging., • Wild oat (A. fatua) exhibits all three kinds of dormancy,, reported by Thurston, 1959., Example of biennial weeds:, • Chicory, Wild carrot, • Launea, Plantago sp., • Canada thistle (Circium arvense), Perennial weeds: Completes their life cycle in more than two year., • Shallow rooted:, Cynodon, Agropyron, • Deep rooted:, Cyprus rotundus, Sorgum he/pens., ,/ Difficult perennial weeds are also called pernicious weed., Weeds association:, a. Season bound:, • Grow in specific season of year with disregard to crop, , species., , • E.g. Sorghum helepens, Circium arvense., h. Crop bound weeds:, Agronomy, , 137, , A Competitive Book of Agriculture
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•, , Species of weeds which usually parasitize the host plant., , •, , It includes following:, (i) Dodder/Cuscuta:, •, , Total stem parasite., , •, •, , Host crop: Lucerne., It can be managed by spray of paraquat, (ii) Loranthusldandropthoe falcate:, •, , Partial stem parasite., , • Host crops: plantation crops., (iii)Broom rapelorobanche sp., • Total root parasite., • Host crops of orobanche: Mustard, tobacco, chili,, brinjal, potato., (iv) Witch weed/ Striga sp., • Partial/semi root parasite., • Host plants of striga: Sorghum, maize, sugarcane,, sunflower., c. Crop associated weeds:, (i) Crop specific weeds:, • Due to need for specific microclimate, • E.g. chicory and coronopus require cool & moist, climate., , (ii) Mimicry weeds:, • Survive well because of their similarity in morphology, with host crops., • Wild rice (0. saliva var. fatua) in paddy, • Wild oat (A. fatua) & canary grass (Phalaris minor) in, wheat., d. Ready contamination of crop seeds:, • Weeds Allium sp. (wild onion), wild garlic and Phalaris, minor mature their seeds at the same height and time as the, winter grain, thus they easily contaminate crop seeds at, harvest time., Agronomy, , 138, , A Competitive Book of Agriculture
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Obligate weeds:, •, Occurs only in the cultiva.ted/otherwise disturbed land., •, never found in wild form, •, E.g. Chenopodium, field bind weed (Convolves arvensis)., f. Facultative weeds:, , e., , •, , Such weeds are grown both as wild and in cultivated habits, •, E.g. Argemone Mexicana, Euphorbia hirta., g. Noxious weeds:, • Weed being especially undesirable troublesome and difficult, •, , to control., Example of noxious weeds are:, •, Cyperous rotandus, Echornnia craspes, •, Saccharum moonja, Imperta cyliderica, •, •, , Lantana camara, Cynodon dactylon, Parthenium hysterophorus, h. Satellite/ Objectionable weed:, •, A noxious weed, whose seeds are difficult to separate, once, •, , •, , mixed with crop seeds., The weeds that mature at the same time and height as host, plant and have similar size and shape of their seeds as the, crop seeds., Like Avena fatua, Pltalaris minor, Chicory, Cuscuta etc., , Stale seed bed:, •, Before sowing to crops irrigation is applied to allow the, germination of weeds and emerging weeds are destroyed., •, It is practice when 1-2 flushes of weeds are destroyed before, planting of any crop., Biological control of weeds:, 1. Use of Bioherbicides/pathogens:, Product, Devine, Collego, Agronomy, , Contains, Liquid suspension, , of fungal spores of Phylopihora, palinivora it cause root rot in weeds., WP of fungal spores of Colletotrichum gleosporiodes It, , cause stem & leaf blight., , 139, , A Competitive Book of Agriculture
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Biopolaris, Biophos, , Suspension of fungal spores of biopolaris sorghicola. it is, used against Johanson grass., Fermented product of Streptomyces hygroscopicus., , Biological control of weeds by use of insects:, • Biological control of weeds by insects is known as:, parabiological control., a. Prickly pear (Opuntia vulgaris):, • In India first outstanding success in biological suppression of, weeds, was achieved when DacOlopies ceylonicus, (dactylopidae: Hemiptera) introduced from Brazil in 1795 for, the suppression of Opuntia vu/guns in central & north India., • In Australia prickly pear (Opuntia inermis) was accidentally, introduced in 1840. The moth borer Cactoblastis cactorum, was introduced in 1925 from Argentina to control Opuntia, , 2., , inermis., b. Water hyacinth (Eichhoronia crassipes):, • This weed introduced in India as ornamental pond plant in, 1896. For the, control of water hyacinth a mite, Orthogalumna terebrantis was introduced from Florida, in, 1982., • Weevil Neochetina eichhorniae & N. bruchi were, c., , introduced to control hyacinth in 1983 from Argentina., Congress grass (Parthenium hysterophorus):, •, , It's one of the notorious weed in India introduced through, , import of food grains from USA., • This weed first reported from Pune (Maharastra) in 1955., •, A leaf feeding chrysomelidae beetle Zygrogramma, bicolorata was introduced in 1983 from Mexico for the, control of congress grass., d. Lantana weeds (Lantana camara):, •, , It introduced in India as ornamental plant in 1809 from, Australia., , Agronomy, , 140, , A Competitive Book of Agriculture
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•, , It contains toxin lantadene A & B in fruits and, lancamarene, in leaves, toxic to animals., • For the control of lantana a Lace bug: Teleonemia serapalora, was introduced from 1941 from Australia., • It is also brought under control by a seed fly Ophiomyia, lantanae., e. Water fern (Salvinia molesta):, • It was first observed in Veil lake (Kerala) in 1950., • For the control of water fern; a Curculionidae weevil,, Cryptobagous salvinae was introduced from Australia in, 1982., , Classification of weeds based on relativity:, a. Absolute weeds:, •, •, , These are always weeds, Plants of no economic importance for human being e.g., , Cyprus rotandus., b. Relative weeds:, •, •, , These are other crop plants., Undesirable crop plants in the main crop field i.e. barley in, , wheat field., C. Rogue weeds:, " Other variety plants in the same crop, • I.e. A few plants of C-306 variety in PBW-502 wheat field., d. Volunteer weeds:, • Such weeds are grown from the fallen seeds of previous or, preceding crop in the field., Pesticides use in agriculture:, Pesticides consumption order:, • In world: Herbicides > insecticides > fungicides, • In India: Insecticides > fungicides > herbicides., • The largest pesticide consuming crop in India is cotton, •, , followed by rice & vegetables., Largest consumption of herbicides in wheat followed by, rice and tea., , Agronomy, , 141, , A Competitive Book of Agrkulture
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• Argemone Mexicana: Papavaraceae, • Echinochola spp.:, Graminae, Other important points:, Angstrom (A°):, • It is the one ten -millionth of a meter., , • A = 10' m or le mm or 10 cm. (RPSC, A0-09), , A -value: (JRF-Agronomy), • Proposed by Friend and Dean, 1952 and defined as an, , available soil nutrient determined in terms of a standard, fertilizer used., • Used for the assessment of available P and S in soils., • Expressed as = B (1-y)., Acid forming fertilizer:, • Ammonium sulphate, •, Ammonium chloride,, •, Anhydrous ammonia, • Urea., Acid sulphate soil:, • Very acid soil (pH <4) in which sulphuric acid is formed by, the oxidation of S -bearing ferrous pyrite minerals., • Found primarily in coasty, deltaic estuarine area of the humid, tropics. (RAS -09), • Also referred as cat clays., Adhesion:, • The force of attraction that binds the molecules of different, kind e.g. soil and water., Azolla:, • An aquatic fern which fixes atmospheric N in symbiotic, association with Anabaena azollae, blue green algae which, , lies in its cavities., Aeroponics:, • It is a system for growing plants with their roots supplied, with moisture in the air e.g. citrus, olive., Agronomy, , 145, , A Competitive Book of Agriculture
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Anhydrous ammonia:, •, Dry and highly acidic, •, Having 148 equivalent acidity, •, , 82 % N: highest nitrogen % among all N fertilizer., , Alumina silicate, •, , These are most common and principle soil forming minerals, i.e. feldspars, micas, quarts., Argillation:, It's a process by which the dispersed clay particles are, , migrated from upper to the lower soil horizons resulting a, textural horizon., Agronomic efficiency:, • Unit of crop produced per unit input (nutrient) added., Antidote:, • A chemical applied to prevent the harmful effect of a specific, pesticide on human beings., Blind cultivation:, • Cultivation before the crop is emerged especially practiced in, potato and sugarcane is done for weeds control., Biostatic effect:, • Reduced microbial decomposition of a pesticide in the, presence of some chemical called extender., • Boron is a biostatic to 2, 4-D., Baule unit:, • Amount of a nutrient associated with 50% of the maximum, possible yield., Blotch:, • Disease of barley caused by Helminthosporium spp., , Base temperature:, • Lowest temperature at which there is no growth is referred, •, •, , as base temperature., 4 °C for wheat., 10 °C for rice/sorghum., , Agronomy, , 146, , A Compeotwe Book of Agriculture
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Cupping, • The upward turning of leaf edge to form a cup -like structure, as seen in case of Mo deficiency., Cohesion:, • The force of attraction that binds the molecules of same kind, e.g. water and water molecules., Ceiling leaf area index:, • Leaf area index at which mutual shading of leaves in a, canopy is complete and net photosynthesis is zero., • Gross photosynthesis equals the respiration losses of the, whole crop., Cropping intensity:, • Total sown area/net cultivated area x 100., Cardinal temperature:, • Concept by Sachs. 1860., • Maximum + minimum + optimum combines called cardinal, temperature., For cool season cereals:, , •, , Minimum, , •, , Optimum, • Maximum, For warm season cereals:, • Minimum, •, •, , Optimum, , 0-15 °C, 25-30 °C, 31-37 °C, , 15-18 °C, , 3137°C, , Maximum, 44-50 °C, Epinasty:, • Increased growth on the upper surface of a plant organ or part, (leaves) causing it to bend downwards., Ecesis/ecess:, • Adjustment of an organism to a new habitat where it can, , complete its life cycle., Ephemerals:, , Agronomy, , 147, , A Competitive Book of Agriculture
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•, , Plants complete their life cycle within 2-4 weeks due to, moisture stress (drought escaping plants)., , Furrow slice:, • Surface soil with depth of 0-15 cm over one ha is known as, furrow slice., •, , Weight of furrow slice is 2.25 x 106 kg soil/ha or 1 cm soil, over one ha =150 ton/cm/ha., Intensity factors (available P):, • The amount of H 2Po4- and 1-1Po4-2 present in soil solution., Methaemoglobinaemia:, • A condition associated with nitrate toxicity as result of, consuming nitrate rich water, • Infants suffering from this condition have been referred to as, blue babies due to development of grayish -blue skin and the, problem referred as blue baby syndrome., Micron (µ):, • One micron is one millionth of a meter, • 1 = 10-6 m or 10-4 CI fl, Nanometer (nm):, • It is the one nine -millionth of a meter, • nm = 1 019 m or 10-6 mm or 10 A, Porometer:, • Instrument used to measure leaf temperature in addition to, transpiration and stomatal resistance measurements., Physiological maturity:, • When fruit growth is complete and photosynthesis are no, longer translocated to fruits, it is known as physiological, maturity, Harvesting maturity:, • At physiological maturity, the moisture percentage of grains, is about 20 per cent., Popping:, , Agronomy, , 148, , A Competitive Book of Agriculture
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•, , In groundnut pod without kernel or unfilled due to: Ca, , deficiency., Light use efficiency:, • The conversion efficiency or quantity of dry matter, , production per unit light interception is known as light use, efficiency., Amount of dry matter produced (gm12), LUE =, , Amount of cumulative light absorbed (MJ m-2)., Light compensation point:, • The minimum light intensity at which photosynthesis and, respiration rates are equal., •, , Rice crop has high compensation point of 1400 ft. candles at, 27 °C., , Light saturation point:, • The light intensity at which there is no further increase in the, rate of photosynthesis is called light saturation point., • Light saturation is high in C4 plants compared to C 3 plants., Crop geometry:, • It is a spatial arrangement or plant rectangularity of crops., • The way in which the crop plants are arranged in the field is, usually referred to as crop geometry., , Kor watering:, • The first irrigation of crops is known as kor watering and, the depth applied in the first watering is kor depth., Row crop:, • Crops which are sowing in uniform spacing e.g. cotton., , Selectivity ratio:, • It is the ratio of maximum dose tolerated by the crop to the, minimum dose required to kill weeds., Saturation light intensity:, , Agronomy, , 149, , A Competitive Book of Agriculture
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•, , It is the maximum intensity at which the rate of, photosynthesis reaches a maximum value., Most of crops reach light saturation point at 115th of full, , •, , sunlight., Sodium absorption ratio: (JRF exam. many times), SAR =, , Na, 4Ca+2+ Mg+2/2, , •, , The water contains SAR value > 10 is harmful to crops., • Soils having SAR value >13 are considered as alkali or, Sodic soil., Thermoperiodism:, • Concept given by Gardner., • Response of living organism to regular changes in, temperature either day/night or seasonal in called as, thermoperiodism., Transpiration ratio:, • Amount of water transpired by a crop to produce 1 kg of dry, matter., • It expressed in liter/kg of dry matter., Transpiration coefficient:, • Amount of water needed by a crop to produce 1 kg of dry, matter. I.e. rice crop used 5000 liters of water to produce 1 kg, of dry matter., VAPSA/Vetier:, • Condition of optimum moisture to carry out agricultural, operation easily and efficiently., • Generally at 25 to 50 % moisture depletion., , Agronomy, , 150, , A Competitive Book of Agriculture
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4., , sorL SCIENCE, , Important points:, .7 Canker nodules are found mostly in:, Red soils, i Process of moving out of sesquioxide is Podzolization., known as:, i, Process of mixing of soils is known as:, Pedoturbation, ,, / Soils having at least 20% organic matter Organic soils, known as:, /, Law of minimum was proposed by:, J. V. Liebig, 1840, ,./ 0' horizon is absent in:, Arable soils, / Top most mineral horizon is:, A' horizon, •7 Diameter of clay particle is:, Less than .002 mm, / Soil structure which is best for Crumby structure, cultivation is:, ., ,4 Particle density of most of the soil is:, 2.65 gkc, /, Bulk density of general soil:, 1.33 g/cc, '7 Total pore space highest in:, Clay soils, 1:1 non expanding, /, Kaolinite is a type of mineral:, Montmorillonite, is, a, type, of, mineral:, 2:1, expanding type, V, V, , Vermiculate is a type of mineral:, , V,7, V, '7, /, , Chlorites are type of mineral:, Recently formed soils found order is:, Black cotton soil found in:, The weight of soil furrow slice is:, One cm of surface soil over one ha of, land weight is:, , 2:11imited, expanding, 2:1:1 type mineral, Entisols, Maharashtra., 2.25 x 10 6 kg/ha., 150 tones., , '7, v, , Permissible soil loss by water is:, , 12 t/ha., , Chief constitute of sandy fraction:, , Quartz., , '7, , Most dominant mineral on the earth, , Feldspars (48%)., , v, , crust:, Pulse crop, , Rajma., , v, v, , does, , not, , fix, , N, , from, , atmosphere:, First manufactured fertilizer in India is:, , SSP, , Classification of soils by [CAR in:, , 8 groups., , Soil Science, , 151, , A Competitive Book of Agriculture, , _,
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V, , V, 1, 1, V, 1, 1, V, V, V, , Adverse effect of salinity on plant due to, increased:, Apical bud dominance is caused by, which hormone:, The crops which absorb the Ammonical, form directly:, Ammonical fertilizers should be applied, in:, Nitrate fertilizer should be applied in:, Major source of nitrogen absorption:, Pascal (Pa) is the SI unit of:, The smallest volume of soil (Ito 10 m2), called a:, Most of exchange of gases in soil is due, to:, In addition of organic matter bulk, , Osmotic pressure, Auxin, Paddy & potato, , Reduced zone., Oxidized zone., Nitrate (NO3) form, Pressure., Pedon, Diffusion, Decreases, , density:, , V, , In red soils the dominant clay mineral Kaolinite, is:, , V, V, V, , The red soils are red in colour due to Iron oxide, presence of:, Dry land agriculture., Black soils are best suitable for:, In black soils the dominant clay mineral Montmorillonite, is:, , 1, i, V, V, V, V, V, V, V, , Black cotton soils are deficient in:, Azolla is widely used bio fertilizer in:, Formula of backing soda is:, , Nitrogen., Rice crop., NaHCO3., Formula of castic soda is:, NaOH., USA is the first country to introduce:, Zero tillage., _, Urea in the presence of ureas forms Ammonium, into:, Carbamate., Electrical conductivity is used to Salinity of the soil., express:, Sterility in wheat due to:, , Ballast element:, Soil Science, , ,, , _
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V, V, V, V, , Red soils are dominate in:, Laterite soils are dominant in:, , Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, and, Kerala, Organic matter content in Indian soils is, - Less than 0.5%, generally:, , Most outstanding green manure crop:, , 1, , - Sunhemp(Crotalaria, juncea), Wood is mainly decomposed by:, Actinomycetes., Nif: gene responsible for, N -fixation, _, Population of actinomycetes is higher - Alkaline soils., in:, _, Fine texture soils are more sensitive to: Water erosion., _, The soils which are most suitable for the Sandy loam, most of the crops are:, Rice can tolerate very low level even absence, , I, , complete ........of oxygen in the soil., Desired size of the soil sample for soil 0.5 kg, , V, 1, 1, 1, 1, , 1, , testing is:, Crop having the highest tolerance to Sugar beet, boron is:, Insoluble fraction of organic matter is:, Humin, Lowering of the B.D. of a soil indicates: Better, physical, properties, Entisol, Recently formed soil order:, , 1, , Ppm=per cent/10000 or ppm equal to, , 1, 1, 1, , 0.0001 %, , 1, , Red soils are found in Tamil nadu, , •, , Soil pH measures active acidity of soil., , •, , Th element required for seed formation: P, , 1, , Oxidation: means addition of oxygen or loss of electron, , ✓, , Reduction means: addition of H2 or removal of 02 or gala, , electron, On the number basis population o
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Bacteria > Actinomycetes > Fungi, V The first antibiotic penicillin was discovered by Alexander, Flemming, 1929, If gamete is fertile but seed is not produce due to: Self, , incompability, V Oldest method of breeding for improving variety is: Selection, .1 Zinc deficiency is produced in: Calcarious soil, V, , In weed infested pond in high fishes are suddenly death become:, 0 2deficiency, , ,/, , Due to water logging the availability of which nutrient is, increased in rice field is: Manganese, Light receptor pigment in animals is: Melanin, In lac production which country has monopoly: India, Skill, development (improve, skill), through:, Method, demonstration, Porosity: 100 -bulk density/particle density x 100., Bulk density of sub soil is higher as compared to urface soils., Active acidity: it is present (I-1 & A1+3) in soil solution., Soil texture is an inherent property of soil it can't be changed., Provision of adequate drainage is the basic principle in, reclamation of saline and alkali soils., Alluvial soils most recently formed soils., Red soils are best suitable for agriculture., Many Pedon within defined limit is called soil series that is, basic unit of classification., Chisel ploughs are also used to break hard pans present even at, 60-70 cm., In general ploughs are used for primary tillage and harrows for, secondary tillage., In zero tillage, primary tillage is completely avoided and, , ✓, ✓, ✓, ••(, , V., ,f, I, •, •, •, ✓, .(, ✓, ✓, , secondary tillage is restricted to seed bed pre parathion in the, •, , root zone only., Soil erosion: detachment and transportation of soil particles by, water/wind is soil erosion., , Soil Science, , 154, , A Competitive Book of Agriculture
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•, , Portion of capillary water lying between field capacity (1/3 Atm.), to wilting coefficient (15 atm) is known as: Available water, / Tillage is the mechanical manipulation of soil for loosening the, surface crust and brings about favorable condition for the, germination of seeds., • Tilth is the physical condition of soil in relation to plant growth., •( Stages of wind erosion: Saltation (75% of wind erosion)suspension -surface creep, Total N content of soils ranges from less than 0.02% in subsoil, , •, , to more than 2.5% in peats., Warabandi: rotational supply of water in canal irrigated area., Cabbage is highly sensitive to boron toxicity (< 0.33ppm), , •, ✓, ✓, , Most common ureas inhibitor commercially available is Agrotain, or NBPT (N -serve in India) recently ATS (ammonium, thiosulphate) as a urease inhibitor., • H 2P O 4" is greatest absorbed at acidic PH6.5 or less. (IFFC0-09), • P O 4-3 is absorbed at higher value of, (slightly alkaline)., 1 The uptake of HPO4-2 is much slower than H2PO4,( Chelate: organic compound with combine Fe, Mn, Cu, Zn. E.g., EDTA (slow released micro organic fertilizer)., ✓, Pedalfer: an absolute term used for a group of a soil with an, accumulation of sesquioxide (Fe & Al) in lower part of Solum., ✓, Adsorption: gathering of molecules on a surface., • Sun hemp (Crotalaria juncea) best suited crop for green, manuring, it accumulate higher amount of N 134 kg/ha followed, by dhaicha (Sesbania encotata)., • Sebania rostata: found stem nodules, hence aerial N fixation., ✓, Foliar spray method useful in small quantity fertilizer e.g., , pH, , ✓, 1, 1, 1, , micronutrient, Organic matter is major source of nitrogen, phosphorus (5-60, %) and 80% sulphur., The temperature of surface soil is always higher than, atmosphere., For each unit increase in pH the concentratke, decreases by 100 fold., Ideal NPK ratio should be: 4;2;, Soil Science
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V' The most widely occurring clay mineral in soil is kaonite, ✓, Underground reservoirs are usually found in porous rock, formation called: Aquifer., 1 The fertilizer prepared with Rhizobium culture is known as, "Nitrogin" Nif gene is responsible., ✓, Alkali soil: ESP > 15, EC <4 dsm, Ph>10 also called Sodic or, Usar soil. (RPSC, A0-09), ✓, Mostly plants absorbed micronutrients in reduced form (Fe+2,, Mn+2etc)., 1 A unit change in pH represent a 10 fold change in 1-1+ or Off, activity., 1 Substances added to soils for the improvement of their condition, known as: Amendments, 1 The book 'Nature & properties of soil" is written by N.C., Brady. (RPSC, AA0-09), ✓, Fertilizer most concentrate used for nutrient supply to crops is:, Anhydrous ammonia (82%N)., 1 Complementary reactions between intercrops is: Annidation, • Sandy soils have higher bulk density than clay soils., 1 Green leaf manuring crops e.g. Glericidia acculata, Pongamia, pinnetta, Ipomoea cornea, 1 Green manuring crops e.g. Crotolaria juncea (Sunhemp),, Sesbania acculata (dhaicha), and cowpea., ✓ Sheet stage of water erosion most dangerous because it's not, noticed by farmers, ✓ Plant geometry refers to the shape of plant, ✓ Crop geometry refers to the shape of space available for, individual plants., ✓ Muck soil: are having highly decomposed organic matter., • Peat soil: organic matter partially decomposed and found under, excessive moisture condition. PHof peat soils is 3.9 hence suitable, for paddy., ✓ Secondary clay mineral: A mineral that has been formed as a, result of subsequent changes in rocks is known as secondary, mineral eg. Kaolinite, montmorillonite, illite, gypsum., , Soil Science, , 156, , A Competitive Book of Agriculture
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Soil science:, • The word 'Soil' originated from Latin word 'So/um ' means, , Floor., Definition of Soil:, • The soil is a dynamic natural body composed of minerals and, organic materials as well as living forms in which plants, grow., a. Edaphology:, • It is the study of various properties of soil in relation to, growth, nutrition & yield of crops., • It derieved from two Greek words, Edaphos =, Soil, Logos, =, Discourse, • According to Edaphology soil is natural habitat for plants., b. Pedology:, • To study the origin, classification and description of soil is, known as Pedology., • It derived from two Greek words:, Pedon =, Soil, Logos =, Study, • Father of pedology is known as: V.V Dokuchaiv., • According to pedology, soil is a natural body., Types of rocks:, , Examples:, Rocks:, Granite,, basalt, • Igneous rocks, Lime stone, sand stone and dolomite, • Sedimentary rocks, Gneiss,, marble, quartz and slate, • Metamorphic rocks, Metamorphic rocks and their parent material:, Metamorphic product: Derived, From granite, • Gneiss, From lime stone, • Marble, • Q uartz, From sand stone, From shale, • Slate, Earth minerals:, SO Science
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Quartz: silica or S102:, • Chief constituent of sandy fraction, • Constitute 36 % of earth's crust., • Rocks containing free silica in abundance, which is not, combined with bases, are called "acid rocks"., • In granite (acid rock), quartz is present in a pure form as a, prominent constituent., • In basic rocks like basalt contain only a little, if any of free, silica., b. Feldspars:, • Formula K 20. A10 3. 6 Si 02, • Such mineral constitute about 48 % earth's crust., • Feldspar weather easily and give rise to clay on hydrolysis., c. Micas:, • White mica is more resistant to weathering than black mica., • Micas are more resistant to weathering than feldspar and, other silicates., •, Micas constitute 10 °A of earth's crust. Two types:, (i), Potash mica: Potash mica is white, clear and transparent, , a., , (ii), , and known as muscovite mica, Magnesium mica: It is called biotic black mica, , Soil formation:, •, Soil is formed from weathering of rocks and minerals., •, , Soil formation is a slow process, formation of one inch soil, needs 800-1000 years., According to jenny:, • Soil property is determined by the relative influence of these, factors:, a. Passive factors:, (i), Parent material: it is the unconsolidated mass from, , which the solum develops., Relief/topography:, b. Active factors:, Climate, (i), Organisms (biosphere), (ii), (ii), , Soil Science
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c., , Natural factors:, (i), Time or age of land, , Soil profile:, •, A vertical section of the soil through all its horizons and, , extending into the parent material and the Individual layers, are regarded as horizons., •, , It grouped into: 0, A, B & C horizons., , 1. O' horizon:, •, , Organic horizon is present above mineral soils., , •, , It is generally found in forest areas., , •, , Such 0" horizon is visible in virgin soil and absent in arable, soils., 2. A' (Eluvial) horizons:, • Top most mineral horizon., • Containing mixtures of organic matter which tends imparts, a darker colour than that of the lower horizon., •, It is zone of washing out/maximum leaching., •, Mobilization of nutrients takes place., A' horizon having sub horizons:, (a), A l Horizon: It is uppermost mineral soil horizon rich in, organic matter., (b), E' or A2' Horizon: Horizon of maximum eluviations of, clay, Fe Al oxides., (c), AB or EB horizon: Transition horizon between A/E and B, (also called A3)., 3. B' (Illuvial) horizon:, •, , •, •, •, , horizon of maximum, accumulation (immobilization) of materials such as Fe and, Al oxides and silicate clays., Deposition of CaCO3, CaSO4 and other salts in arid zones., This horizon some time also referred to as sub soil., It can't be cultivated by tillage operation., It, , is zone of washing in or, , 4. C' horizon:, •, It is unconsolidated material underlying the, , horizon)., Snii Science
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•, •, , It is zone of least weathering., Accumulation of Ca, Mg carbonates, and cementation., , Major component of soil:, Mineral, =, 45%, Organic soil =, 5%, Air space, =, 25 %, Water, =, 25 %., Properties of soil:, 1. Soil texture:, • Soil texture refers to the relative proportions of various types, of soil particles. OR, • It is refers to the size of the soil particles., • It is basic property of a soil, it can't be changed., Mechanical analysis of soil separates i.e. the percentage of sand,, silt and clay is done by Hydrometric method., Classification of soil particle size:, Classification, According to IISS (dia. in mm), Gravel, >2.0, Coarse sand, 0.2 - 2.0, Fine sand, 0.02 - 0.2, Silt, 0.02 - 0.002, Clay, < 0.002, Textural classes:, • Sandy soil:, Soil contains more than 85% sand., • Silt soil:, When more than 80% silt., • Clay soil:, When more than 40% clay., • Clay soils have highest pore space then other., Loamy soil:, • These are best for agricultural production because they, retain more water and nutrients than sandy soils., • Suitable for most of crops, •, Have better drainage, aeration and tillage properties than clay, soils, Heavy soils:, Soil Science, , 160, , A Competitive Book of Agriculture
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•, , The clay soil imparts cohesion and stickiness and fine texture, to the soil and induces resistance to the passage of, implements., •, In other words it makes the soil "heavy", • These soils are suitable for cotton, rice, sorghum., Light soils:, •, In comparison to clay soil sandy soils offer little resistance, to implements and called light soil., •, E.g. Light soils suitable for groundnut, potato, tobacco and, legumes., Hence;, • The term heavy and light refers to the degree of resistance, offered by soil to the passage of implements, •, But not to weight in fact the heavy soil weights less than an, equal volume of the light soils., 2. Soil structure:, • Refers to the arrangement or grouping of primary soil, particles viz., sand, silt, clay and their aggregates into certain, , defined pattern is called soil structure., •, •, , Individual aggregates are known as Peds or secondary units., Soil structure can be changed by agronomic practices i.e., ploughing, cultivating, drainage, liming and manuring., • Natural aggregates are called Peds., • Clod: It is used for a coherent mass of soil broken into any, shape by artificial means such as by tillage., Shapes of soil structure: most agricultural importance soil shape, /structures are following types:I. Spheroid:, • Rounded aggregates or pads not more than 2 cm in diameter, often in a loose condition in the A" horizon., • It is grouped in to granular and crumbs., (a) Granular:, • Fine aggregates of soil, good for crop cultivation., , (b) Crumb:, •, •, , When granules are especially porous known as crumb., It is most suitable for cultivation of crops., , Soil Science, , PAINMEIMINEW&Q-, , 161, , A Com petitive Boo k of Agriculture
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•, , Hence, both granular and crumb structures are most, , favorable for plant growth., 3., , Density of soil:, • It is measured by Pycnometer, • Two types:, (a) Particle density:, • It is the density of the oven dried soil particles when air is, excluded., Mass, P.D., , Volume of soil particles, ✓, •, , Particle density of soil is: 2.65 g/cm 3 org/cc., P.D. some time also known as real density or gain density, or absolute density., Particle density is lower when the organic matter added, , •, , in soil., (b) Bulk density/apparent density:, ✓, It is the ratio of the weight of oven dried soil to its bulk, volume., Weight of oven dry soil, B.D. =, Volume of soil, ✓, It is also called the volume weight., • Bulk density is generally half of particle density., • Bulk density: 1.33 g/cc, ✓, Sandy soils have high bulk density than clay, • Organic matter decrease B.D, • Tillage operations also reduce B.D, 4. Thermal conductivity:, • It is defined as amount of heat flowing in unit time through, •, , a unit cross section of soil., The thermal conductivity is high for sandy soils compared, , •, , Soil moisture content increases, thermal conductivity also, , to clay soils., increases., , Soil Science, , 162, , A Competitive Book of Agriculture
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•, , Addition of organic matter in soil decrease thermal, , conductivity., • Thermal conductivity decreases with increase in porosity, • Tillage decreases thermal conductivity, 5. Redox potential:, •, , It is measured by:, , Eh, , •, , For well drained soil: 400 to 700mv, •, Water logged soil:, -250 to -350mv., 6. Soil plasticity:, •, Soil containing > 15 % clay exhibit plasticity., •, Range of moisture content in soil which exhibit plasticity is, known as plasticity index or limit., • Plasticity index given by Alterberg, 1911 also gave limits, of soil., (a) Lower plastic limit: Lowest moisture content at which soil, can be deformed without cracking or it is upper limit of, moisture for tillage., (b) Liquid limit or upper limit: Higher moisture content which, destroys soil aggregates or moisture at which cease to be, plastic., • Soil plasticity determined by apparatus: liquid limit devices., 7. Soil consistency:, • Resistant soil at various moisture content to mechanical, •, , stress, Soil consistency order is: dry soil > moist soil > wet soil, , 8. ODR (oxygen diffusion ratio):, • It measured by platinum weir electrode., Range of ODR, 22.9 x 10-8 to 39.5 x 10-8g/cm2/minute, • For irrigated pea: 39.5 g/cm 2/min (highest ODR), • For rice:, 22.1 x 10-8 g/cm 2/min (lowest), 9. Soil colour:, • Determined by Mulsan colour chart., (a) HUE: It denotes the dominant spectral colour (yellow, red, , blue, brown)., (b) VALUE:, Denotes the lightness and darkness of colour., Soil Science, , 163, , A Competitive Book of Agriculture
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(c) CHROMA: Denotes purity of colour., 10. Specific heat: unit is (cal/g), • For water: 1, • For soil: 0.2, • For organic matter: 0.5, Note:, • The heat gain or loss by the soil is five times quicker than by, the water because the specific gravity of the soil is 0.2 and the, specific gravity of the water is 1.0, Silicates minrals:, a. Olivine:, • It is Ferro -magnesium silicate (Fe Mg) 2 S104, • Two hydrated forms of olivine are talk and serpentine, is a, hydrated silicate of Mg., b. Tourmaline:, • It is boron- alumina silicate., Some Silicates which are source of plant nutrient:, • Phosphorus:, Apatite, • Potassium:, Biotite, Orthoclase, • Magnesium (Mg):, Dolomite, Olivine, • Calcium:, Anorthite, Dolomite, • Boron:, Tourmaline, • Molybdenum:, Olivine, • Manganese (Mn):, Pyrolusite, Minerals resistant to weathering (descending sequence):, Quartz > Muscovite > Feldspar > Biotite > Calcite, II, Composition of earth's crust:, Element, °A amount, Oxygen, 47.02, Silicon, 28.06, Aluminum, 8.16, Ferrous, Calcium, Sodium, Magnesium, Sort Science, , 4.64, 3.50, 2.63, 2.62, 164, , A Competitive Book of Agriculture
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Silicate clay mineral:, •, The most important silicate clay is known as phyllosilicate., • The silicate clay unit consists of alternate sheets comprised of, one type if sheet is dominated by silicon (Si) and other by Al/, Mg., Silica -dominated sheet is called tetra hedral and Al/Mg, sheet is called octahedral because of eight sided building, , •, , block., • Si4+ is surrounded by four oxygen ions and Al/Mg by six, hydroxyl/oxygen ions., Classification of silicate clays:, A. On the basis of number and arrangement of tetrahedral and, octahedral sheet, silicate clays are classified in to 3 -different, group:, 1. 1:1 type minerals (one tetrahedral Si to one octahedral Al, sheet): e.g. Kaolinite., 2. 2:1 type minerals: (two Si sheet to one Al sheet). Means alumina, is sandwiched between two tetrahedral silica sheets. Eg., Montmorillonite, illite and vermiculate., 3. 2:1:1 or 2:2 type mineral: eg. Chlorites., • These are basically ferro-magnesium silicates with some, amount of aluminum present., •, , •, , It is having an extra layer of Mg -dominated alumina sheet,, called Brucite (Mg (OH) 2)., But Mg 2+ also dominates the alumina sheet of 2:1 type, , •, , minerals., Thus crystal unit has two silica sheets and two magnesium, , dominated alumina sheet., Hence it is also called 2:2 type clay minerals., It is non- expanding in nature., B. On the basis of expending and non expending nature the silicate, minerals are grouped in to following types:, •, •, , 1. Expanding type:, • It includes, , montmorillonite, , (Smectite, , group), , and, , vermiculate group., Soil Science, , 165, , A Competitive Book of Agriculture
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a. Montmorillonite:, • Montmorillonite is prominent in clay soils., • It is most common Smectite in soils where Mg+2 is, substitute for Al +3 in alumina sheet (octahedral)., • It is loosened by "wonder wall force" ., b. Vermiculate:, • In this group the degree of swelling is considerably less, than Smectite, so also called limited expansion clay, mineral., • But the CEC (cation exchange capacity) of vermiculites, , exceeds that of all other silicate clays due to very high, negative charges., 2. Non -expanding type:, a. Illite: Found in clay soil, b. Micas: (Muscovite, Biotite): These are found in sand and, silt., Basic properties of major silicate minerals:, SS, , Property, , Kaolinite, , Illite, , I, , Type, of, silicate clays, , 2:1, non, expanding, , 1, , Total surface, area m2/g, , 1: !type, non, expanding, 37-45, , Montmorillonit, e, 2:1 expanding, type, , 120-170, , 580-750, , 2, 3, , Vermiculate, , Humus, , 2:1, limited, expanding, 780-900 (highest, , 1200, , among silicates), , External, surface, Internal, surface, , Very low, , Low, , Medium, , None, , Low, , High, , - High, Less, , _, than, , -, , montmorillonite, , 4, , Cohesion,, plasticity,, swelling, , Very low, , Low, , 5, , 3-15, , 30-40, , 6, , CEC, (meq/100 g, soil), Size (in µ), , 0.1-5.0, , 0.1-2.0, , 7, , P fixing, , Low, , _, , High, , medium, , lo‘N, , 100-150, , >200, , 0.01-1.0, , --, , -, , Highest, , Medium, , 80-150, , _, , Soil taxonomy:, Modern classification:, Soil Science, , 166, , A Competitive Book of Agriculture
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•, , It is US comprehensive soil classification system based on, -th, 7, approximation., • This system maintains the natural body concept and two, major features adopted were (1975):, a. Primary basis for identifying different classes are properties of, soils rather than genesis of soil., b. Latin or Greek words are the basis for nomenclature., Six categories were adopted for this system: is, • Order, • Sub -order, • Great group, • Sub -group, • Family and, • Series., • The smallest unit of soil classification is the soil series., Soil orders in the 7th approximation and their derivation: 12 soil, orders., SN, 1, , Soil order, Inceptisols, Entisols, Vertisols, , Features, Young, embryonic soils with few diagnostic . features., Recently formed (Alluvial soils), little profile, development, Dark or black swelling clays, deep cracks develop, when dry, , Oxisols, , 6, 7, , Alfisols, Histosols, Aridosols, , Spodosols, 9, 10, , Ultisols, Mollisols, , Oxide, sesquioxide rich soils, highly weathered soils, of tropical regions, Relatively young soils, acid soils, larger in forest soils, Called organic soil, have more than 20 % O.M., Desert soils of arid regions, Such soils are with sub soil accumulation o f, sesquioxide and humus, Low nutrient, low base status, forest soils, Soft; grassland dark soils of steppes and prairies, high, base status, , II, , 12, , Endisols, Celisols, , Soils of India:, , 167, , Soil Science, , •, , A Competitive Book of Agriculture
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•, , Broadly eight groups but four major groups are described, as:, , 1., , Alluvial soils:, • Formed mainly from Entisols, •, Deposited in flood plains by transportation in streams and, rivers., • Largest soil group with occupying about 143 mha (highest, area in UP followed by Haryana, Delhi, Rajasthan and, western Gujarat)., •, Alluvial soils are azonal soil (no horizon)., •, , It is geographically two types:, • Khaddar or newely formed alluvial, more sandy., , • Bhangar or older alluvium, more clayey soils., 2. Black soils:, • Formed mainly from vertisol soil order., •, Rich in montmorillonite clay minerals., • In Maharashtra soil derived from Deccan trap is called Regur, or black cotton soils, mostly high clay content., • It is dark, fine grained soils., • It is second largest soil group after alluvial with occupying 55, mha (mainly found in Maharashtra & MP)., • Poor in phosphorus, nitrogen and organic matter., 3. Red soils:, •, •, , Formed mainly by Allis°Is soil order., , Red soil occupied about 15 mha (largest area in TN followed, by Karnataka and Goa)., • Red soils have high P fixation capacity due to presence of, kaolinite clay mineral., • The red colour due to presence of iron., • These soils are rich in Fe and Mn., • Red soils also called as early soils because in the light and, frequent rains of south west monsoon, red soils permit, sowing being done earlier than other soils., 4. Laterite soils:, • Formed mainly from ultisols and oxisols soil groups., Soil Science, , 168, , A ComPetitive B°°41"tf'
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•, •, •, , Kaonite is dominated silicate clay., Occupied about 25 mha, , •, •, •, , Formed under heavy rainfall and high temperature., Maximum leaching takes place., Good physical condition due to presence of hydrous oxide of, Fe & Al., Shifting cultivation adopted, Suitable for plantation crop and rice cultivation., , •, •, , Mainly found on hills of Kerala, Karnataka,, Orissa, Assam, and coastal area of Goa, Maharashtra., , Soil fertility:, • The inherent capacity of the soil to supply plant nutrient in, , adequate amount, plants., , in suitable proportion for the growth of, , Soil productivity, • The capacity of the soil to produces in a unit area, expressed, in kg/ha or Rs/ha., •, A fertile soil may or may not be productive but a productive, soil always fertile., Basic differentiate between soil fertility and productivity:, Soil fertility, , It is the ability of the soil to, provide, , all, , essential, , plant, , nutrients in available forms in, a suitable balance, It is an index of available, nutrient to plants, Influenced by the physical,, chemical and biological factors, of the soil, All fertile soils are not, productive, It is an inherent property of the, soil, , Soil Science, , Soil productivity, Capability of soil to produce specified, crop yield under well defined and, specified system of management of, , inputs & environ. condition, It is used to indicate crop yields, Depends upon fertility and location, , All productive soils are fertile, It is not the inherent property of the soil, • -
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Humus:, •, , Humus is a complex and rather resistant mixture of brown or, dark brown amorphous and colloidal substances modified, , from the original tissues or synthesized by the various soil, •, •, , organisms., Humus contains 40-45% lignin and 30-33 % protein, hence, humus is also called lingo -protein complex., The C: N ratio of humus is:, 10:1, C: N ratio of normal soils:, 12:1, C: N ratio of Legumes:, 20:1 to 30:1, C: N ratio of FYM:, 20-30:1, C: N ratio of micro organism: 4:1 to 9:1, , •, •, •, •, Organic matter:, • Humus and organic matter contains nitrogen about 5 to 5.5, % while in humus & organic matter Carbon ranges from 50, to 58% that given a C: N ratio 9:1 to 12:1., • Year after year the quantity of organic matter in soil is, declined., • Organic matter is the key of production & maintain of soil, health, • Organic matter is found higher in grass land than forest area., • Method of organic matter is calculated by multiplying the, organic carbon values by a conversion factor of: 1.724., • Organic matter = Organic carbon x 1.724, •, 1.724 is called Bern/en factor., • The status of nitrogen in general soil is 0.03-0.05%, that, means presence of 1000 kg of N/ha., , Soil buffering:, • Means resistance to change in soil pH., • Its regulate availability of nutrients to plants., Cation adsorption order is:, •, •, , A1+3 > Ca' 2> Mg+2> K+, Here, K+ is less tightly held by colloids hence K + ion radially, available for plant or subjected to leaching., Anion exchange order:, Soil Science, , 170, , A Competitive Book of Ag ricultw e
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•, •, , H2Po4-2 > OH- > S042> NO3NO; is less tightly held hence, easily available to plants or, subjected to leaching., , Flocculation:, , •, , The colloidal particles are coagulated by adding an oppositely, charged ions process is called flocculation., Order of flocculation:, • A141> Ca+> H+> Mg'2, Sequence of availability/absorption of nutrient:, •, , Nitrogen > potassium > phosphorous, , Availability of nutrients with 13" values:, Availabitlity at pH, pH <6.0, _. pH 6.0-6.5, Nutrients, Al, Fe, Mn, Zn, P, , pH > 6.0, Ca, Mo, , • Ca & Mo availability increase with increase in pH, Soil acidity:, • Active acidity: as the acidity develops due to presence of, hydrogen (H4) and A1+3ions on the soil solution., • Exchange acidity: as the acidity develops due to II+and A1+3, ions (adsorbed) on the soil colloids., • In acidic soils conc. of Fe, Mn Al and I-1 ions increases and, the concentration of P. Mo, N, K, S decreases, Problematic soils of India:, a. Acidic soils:, • Highest acidic soils found in West Bengal, • Acidity due to adsorption of Alf 3, Fe+2, Mn ions on soil, colloids., Acid soil management:, • Use of agriculture liming material such as oxide, hydroxide,, carbonates of Ca & Mg, b. Saline soils:, • White crust of salt hence called white alkali/solon chalk., • Soluble salt i.e. Cl & SO4 ions of sodium and calcium in root, ", , zones, EC is used for measurement of soil salinity, , Soil Science, , 171, , A Competitive Book of Agriculture
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• Found in arid and semi arid zones., Reclaimation of saline soil:, • Flooding or leaching of soluble salts by good irrigation, , water., •, •, , Keep soil moist or frequent irrigated the field., Use of FYM for salin, cclamation, , Alkaline soils:, • Boron, Mo, and sodium toxicity in alkaline soils, • Black coloured, found in semi arid & sub humid area, • Developed due to excess NaCO3 and NaHCO 3 ions in soil, • In alkali soils should be used CAN or DAP instead urea, Reclamation of alkali soils:, 1. Gypsum @ 8 qt/ha used for reclamation of sodic or alkali or, soils having Ph > 8.5., 2. Iron pyrite (Fes2) @ 12 qt/ha can be used for amendments of, , c., , alkali soil, 3. Green manuring should be adopted, 4. Cultivation of salt tolerant crops:, , Relatively salt sensitive crops are:, Crop, Field crops, , Fodder crops, , Spinach,, raphanus,, sugar, beet, B. repa., Date palm, Phalsa, , Vegetables, ,, , Fruit crops, , V, , High tolerant, Barley, dhaicha,, sugarbeet,, tobacco, cotton,, mustard, Rhodes, grass,, Khush grass, , Medium tolerant, Rice,, sorghum,, pearl millet, arhar,, wheat, rye, oat, Sudan, berseem,, sorghum, Cabbage,, , grass,, Lucerne,, , cauliflower, tomato,, carrot, onion, potato, Pomegranate,, grapes,, guava,, mango, banana, , Sensitive crops, , Sunhemp,, groundnut,, , pea,, moong,, , gram, urd, Cluster bean, , Sam,, English, varieties of raphanus, Apple, ber, lemon,, straw bery, almond, , in case of saline soils Gypsum shouldn't be recommended, because sulphate also increases salt concentration., , Soil Science, , 172, , A Competitive Book of Agriculture
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r a—aesdidiumi, w a sa limmassiggamMI, h, , I, , Substances that influence the plant growth favorably by, emulating the soil physical and chemical properties are, called soil amendments., Parameters of different problematic soils:, Parameters, , Saline soil, , Alkaline soil, , Saline -Alkali, , PH, EC (in ds/m), ESP, , <8.5, , > 8.5, <4, >15, , > 8.5, >4, >15, , >4, <15, , Physical classification of soil water:, a. Hygroscopic water:, N, 7 It held mostly by soil colloids., 1 Tension varies from 31-10,000 atmospheres, 1 It held at hygroscopic coefficient., ✓, Mostly non -liquid, • Moves in vapor form therefore biologically inactive., b. Capillary water:, It present in capillaries of soil., 1 Held between field capacity and hygroscopic coefficient, in micro pores, • At a tension of 0.3 (1/3) to 31 atm., vf Function as soil solution., • . Mostly available form of water to crops, C. Gravitational water:, • It held by a negative tension of less than 0.3 atm., ✓, Free water which drains out, It is also called drainage water., Undesirable and usually present in macro pores., Soil erosion, • The process of the removal of soil particles from the parent, body and transportation of such particles by wind and/or, water., 1. Water erosion:, a. Splash/rain drop:, • It is first stage of water erosion., Soil Science, , 173, , A Competitive Book of Agriculture
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b. Sheet erosion:, • Highest and uniform removal of soil particles., • It is unnoticed by farmer hence most serious form, , of, , water erosion., c. Rill erosion:, • Can be removed by normal tillage operation., d. Gully erosion:, • It can't be removed by normal tillage operation., 2. Wind erosion: Grouped into three stages:, a. Saltation:, , • The movements of soil particles through bounces/jumps on, ground., , • Saltation is the first stage of movement of soil particles in, series ofjump., • Particles 0.1-0.5 mm diameter is moved by saltation., • Soil loss account for 50-75 % by Saltation., b. Surface creep:, • Rolling or sliding of larger soil particles, • Particle size > 0.5mm., • Generally 5-25 % soil loss by surface creep., c. Suspension:, • Floating of small size particles < 0.1 mm in size,, • Soil loss accounts 3-4 % by suspension., 3. Wave erosion:, • Erosion by combined action of wind and water also known, , as strive bankes, • The permissible limit of soil loss in India is: 12 ton/ha/year, • The rate of soil erosion in India per hectare is: 16.4 t/ha, • When erosion is caused by excessive grazing, deforestation, etc called: Anthropogenic erosion (Pre-PG,1993), Deposition of soils:, • The accumulation of transported soils at another place is, known as deposition., • It may be following types ace. to transportation source, Transportation source:, Known as:, Col luvial, Gravity, Soil Science, , 174, , A Competitive Book of A
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Water, Ice, , Albivial, Glacial, , Aeolian (sandy soil), Loess (silt soil), Mineralization and immobilization:, a. Mineralization:, • It is the conversion of an element from an immobilized form, to an available form as a result of microbial decomposition., b. Immobilization:, • It is the reverse of mineralization where available form of an, element is fixed as immobile form., In case of nitrogen:, • When C: N ratio exceed 30:1, immobilization occurs and, • When C: N ratio is below 20:1, mineralization takes place., Wind, Wind, , • C: N ratio > 30:1 = Net Immobilization, • C: N ratio < 20:1 = Net Miner:az' ation, • C: N ratio = 15-30 both immobilization and mineralization., Aminization:, • The final stage is the decomposition of protein and the, , release of amines, amino acid and urea., •, , This step is termed aminization and these produced turned in, ammonia (NH 3) called ammonification., Nitrification:, 1 The microbial conversion of NH3 into nitrate mediated by, microbes known as nitrification., (i), NH3+, (Nitrosomonas), NO2- (Nitrite), (ii), NO2-2, (Nitrobacter), NO3- (Nitrate), • Optimum temperature for nitrifying bacteria is 30-35 C and, optimum pH is 6.5-7.5., In case of phosphorus:, • 25-80 % of P present in soil is in Organic form., • Major source of P in humus is present in the form of phytin, and small amount as 0-10% in nucleic acid., • C: N: P ratio 100:10:1, • C: N: P ratio > immobilization occurs., Unit: Manure and fertilizer:, Soil Science, , 175, , A Competitive Book of Agriculture
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Manures:, • Manures supply plant nutrients in small quantities and, provide organic matter in large quantities., • Compost that is prepared with the help of earthworms is, called vermicompost., • Night soil is human excreta, both solid and liquid., Green manure: Green, undecomposed plant material used as manure, is called green manure. It is two types;, a. In situ green manuring: growing of green manure crops and, decomposed in the same field e.g. Sunhemp, dhaicha,, clusterbeans and Sesbania rostrata. Sesbania rostrata is a stem, nodulating green manure crop which is a native of West Africa., b. Green leaf manuring: Collecting green leaf along with twigs eg., Glyricidia, Pongamia, Neem, Mahua., Nutrient contents in some Manure:, Product, N, K, P, FYM, , Town compost, Vermicompost, Night soil, Ground nut cake, Safflower cake (decorticated), , 0.5, 1.5, 3.0, 5.5, _7.3, 7.9, , 0.2, 0.4, , 0.5, 1.4, , 1.0, 4.0, , 1.5, 2.0, , 1.5, 2.2, , 1.3, 1.9, , Fertilizers:, •, , Fertilizers are generally inorganic in origin and they supply, , one/more essential plant nutrients in large proportions., Classification of fertilizer:, a. Straight fertilizer: Fertilizer which supply only one major plant, nutrient e.g. Urea, b. Complex fertilizer: Fertilizer which supplies two or more of the, primary nutrients e.g. DAP, c. Mixed fertilizers: Are the products made by mixing two or, more fertilizer e.g. NPK, d. Complete fertilizer: Fertilizer having all three primary major, nutrients e.g. NPK, Soil Science, , 176, , A Competitive Book of Agriculture
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e. Low analysis fertilizers: Having less than 25 % of the primary, nutrient e.g. SSP, f. High analysis fertilizer: Contains more than 25 % of the total, , primary nutrient e.g. Urea, Fertilizer grade:, Refers to the guaranteed analysis of its plant nutrient., It is minimum guarantee of the plant nutrient content in the, terms of available N, P, and K eg. NPK: 19:19:19., Fertilizer ratio:, V Refers to the relative percentage of N, P205and K20 ., Eg. a ratio of 2:1:1 means 80 Kg N, 40 Kg P205 and 40 Kg, K20., Order of hygroscopic nature of fertilizers (decreasing), • Ammonium nitrate > Urea > ammonium sulphate > CAN, Acidic residual nature of fertilizer:, • Anhydrous ammonia > ammonium chloride > ammonium, sulphate > urea > ammonium nitrate (lowest)., Order of basic residual nature of fertilizer:, • Calcium cyanamide > sodium nitrate > di calcium phosphate, > calcium nitrate, Equivalent acidity of fertilizers:, • Anhydrous ammonia: 148 meq/100g, • Ammonium chloride: 128, • Ammonium sulphate: 110, • Urea:, 80-85, • DAP:, 77, • Ammonium nitrate:, 60, Equivalent basacity of fertilizers:, • Sodium nitrate:, 29, • Calcium nitrate:, 21, 1. Nitrogenous fertilizers:, • The ultimate source of nitrogen is atmosphere and immediate, and important source of nitrogen is organic matter., • Maximum consumption of N & P in the state: UP, Nitrate fertilizer:, v Highly. mobile in soil, Soil Wince, , 177, , A Competitive Book of Agriculture
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I Suitable for top dressing., 1 Nitrate fertilizers are basic residual in nature., 1 Leaching and denitrification loss high., Examples of nitrate fertlizer:, • Sodium nitrate:, 16% N, good for acidic soils, • Calcium nitrate:, 15.5% N., • Potassium nitrate (KNO3):, 13 % N and 46 % P20 ., Ammonical fertilizer:, , •, , Less leaching but readily soluble in soil., , I, •, •, , Suitable for water logged soils., , Acidic residual nature., Volatilization and denitrification losses more., Examples of ammonical fertilizer:, a. Ammonium sulphate (N114SO4):, • Contains 20.6 % N and 24.5 % Sulphur., • Most suitable for paddy, tea, groundnut & sugarcane, b. Ammonium chloride (NH4C1-):, • It contains 25.5 % N, • Being acidic residual nature it is extensively used in paddy., c. Both NH4+and NO3- N fertilizer:, (i), Ammonium nitrate (NW-NO3-):, • It contains 33 % N (half of ammonium form and half, nitrate), • Highly hygroscopic nature, • Explosive fertilizer, (ii), Calcium ammonium nitrate (CAN):, • Commonly known as Kishan khad, • it contains 26% N, • Neutral in nature., d. Amide fertilizer: two types, 1. Organic form:, Urea (NH2CO NH2):, •, •, , •, Sod Sdence, , Most commonly used N- fertilizer in India, , Cheapest source of nitrogen, Contains 46 % N, 178, , A Competitive Book of Agriculture
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•, •, •, , It is hygroscopic therefore produced in granular/pellet, form., Acidic in residual: continuous use of urea for several, years results reduce soil pH, Neem coated urea: being slow release properties it, increase the nitrogen use efficiency., , 2. Inorganic form:, , Calcium cyanamide:, • Contains 21 °A N, • Neither import or nor manufactured in India, Analyzing process for determination of available nitrogen is:, • Alkaline permanganate method., Biuret:, • It is formed by the combination of two molecules of urea, during manufacturing of urea., • Biuret toxic to plants hence, concentration in urea should not, exceed 1.5%, • When urea will be applied as foliar spray on crop canopy the, biuret concentration should not exceed 0.25%., Nitrogen losses:, a. Volatilization/non biological loss of NH3+:, • When PH > 8, nitrogen is lost in the form of NH3in alkaline, medium, • Volatilization increase in poor drainage e.g. rice field, • About 60 °A of nitrogen loss in India is due to volatilization;, hence in alkali soil the N application is raised at least by 25%., • Gaseous losses of nitrogen (ammonia) are carried out by, both volatilization and denitrification., b. Denitrification:, • Formation and loss of gaseous form of N by biological, reduction of NO3+ and NO2- are known as Denitrification., • Denitrifying bacteria: PseutIonionas and Bacillus, • Denitrification and volatilization occurs rapid at higher pH., C. Leaching loss:, • Leaching or drainage loss mostly of nitrate fertilizer, • Mostly occurred in humid area, Soil Science, , 179, , A Competitive Book of Agriculture
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Nitrification inhibitors:, •, It is used in non —nitrate fertilizers, inhibitors decrease the, activity of nitrifying bacteria. Examples are following:, •, •, , Thiourea:, Oxamide:, , 36.8 % N, 31 %, , N, , •, •, •, , AM (Pyrimidine), N -Serve (Nitropyrin)., Neem Cake., Slow release fertilizer:, • Nitrate fertilizers mostly used as slow release due to, overcome the problem of leaching., • The solubility of nitrogen fertilizer is reduced by two types of, compounds:, a. Synthesizing compound:, • Urea formaldehyde/urea form: 38 - 42 % N, • Isobutylidene diurea (IBDU): 32.2 % N., • Crotonilidene diurea (CDU):, 32.5 % N, b. Coating barrier:, • Sulphur coated urea, • Neem coated urea, • Modified form/super granules:, • GROMOR: trade name of urea & ammonium phosphate, grade 29:29:0., 2. Phosphate fertilizers:, a. Water soluble:, • SSP:, 16% P20 5, 19%, Ca, 12 % S., • DSP:, 32 % P20 5, • TSP:, 46-48 % P,0 5, • DAP (complex): 18 ')/0 N, 46 % P20 5., • MAP*:, 11 % N, 48 % P20 5, • * Mono -ammonium phosphate is new grade P fertilizer, b. Citrate soluble p fertilizer:, • Di calcium phosphate: 33-40 %, • Basic slag:, 14-18 % 13, 0 5, c. Citrate & water insoluble p fertilizer:, S041 Si. , t roc e, , 180, , A Competitive Book of Agriculture, •
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•, , Rock phosphate:, 20-40 % P20 5 (It is used for acid soil, reclamation), • Row bone meal:, 20-25% P20 5, • Steamed bone meal:, 20-30% P20 5, Bio-super:, • It is form of organic fertilizer mostly in Australia., • Biosuper = Rock phosphate + Sulphur + S oxidizing bacteria, (Thiobacillus)., Conversion factor for P:, •, •, , % P 20 5 =, % P x 2.29, %P, =, % P 20 5 x 0.43, Phosphorous extracted in soil by following methods:, (i) Bray no. 1: for acidic soil (pH 5.5 or less)., (ii) Olsen method: for alkaline 0.5 N NaHCO3: for PH8.5., 3. Potassic fertilizer:, • Highest use of potassic fertilizer in the state: Maharashtra., a. KCL:, • It is most common and cheap fertilizer among potassic, fertilizers, • It contains highest (60 % K 20) among all potassic fertilizer, • Also known as muriate of potash/ potassium chloride, • This fertilizer is suitable for acidic and heavy soils but not for, , alkaline soils, •, , It shouldn't be used in sugarcane, sugar beet, tobacco, tomato, , •, , and potato because in sugar crops, accumulation of sugar is, affected due to chloride ion present in the fertilizer., Higher content of chloride ion reduce burning quality of, tobacco and interfere with starch content in solanaceae crops., In these crops should be used K2SO4and KNO3 instead KCL., , •, b. K 2SO4(Potassium sulphate):, • Contains 48 % K20, 17.5 % S., c. KNO3:, • Potassium nitrate or salt petre or nitre, • It contains 44 % K20, 13%N, , Soil Science, , 181, , A Competitive Book of Agriculture
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•, , It is an excellent source of potassium and nitrogen and mainly, used for fruit trees, tobacco and vegetables, , Conversion values for K:, • %K=, % K 20 x 0.83, • % K20 =, % K x 1.20, Activity ratio:, • Measures of the intensity of labile k in the soil, • It represents 'le that immediately available to crop roots., Ar k=, Activity k+, 117 Activity, , of Ca++,Mg+++, , 1 K & Na is determined by: Flame photometer, Micronutrients:, 1. Ferrous sulphate: is the most commonly used fertilizer, which is sprayed @ 0.5 % on the standing crops to control, iron chlorosis. It contains 19 % Fe., 2. Manganese sulphate: is the most popular manganese, fertilizer which contains 26 % manganese., 3. Zinc sulphate: contains 36 % zinc is the most commonly, used zinc fertilizer. It applied as both to soil (at 25 kg/ha) and, plant (0.5 % as spray). Zinc oxide (78 %) used as seed, treatment., 4. Borax: is the most commonly used for boron fertilizer which, is white compound containing 11 % boron. It is highly, soluble in water, hence should be used as boron fits., 5. Copper sulphate: is commonly used for both spraying on, plants and applying as soil. It contains 22.5 % copper., 6. Ammonium molybdate: used as foliar spray. In pulses Mo is, more important nutrient because it is constitute of, leghaemoglobin hence, can be used @ 3g/kg seed of pulses, Gypsum (CaSO4. 2H20):, • Contains 29.2 % ca & 18.6 % sulphur, • In pulses formed undigestible protein in the deficiency of, sulphur, Agriculture grade gypsum 70 %, 182, Soil Science, •, , A Competitive Book of Agrkutture
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•, , In general case 250 kg/ha gypsum used for sulphur & calcium, especially in onion, mustard, groundnut and pulse crops., In alkali soil for reclamation purpose zypsum is used @ 800, kg/ha, , •, , Methods of fertilizer application:, a. Basal dose:, • Application of fertilizer/pesticides at the time of sowing, ■ Phosphorus fertilizers applied at basal dose due to their slow, release nature., b. Deep placement of fertilizer:, ■ In paddy only ammonium form (NI -14+) incorporated in, reduced zone to prevent leaching and volatilization losses., c., , Starter dose:, • In legume and vegetable seedling at transplanting applied, NPK at 1:2:1 ratio., , d. Split doses of N fertilizer:, • To increase N efficiency, applied 2 split doses in most of, , cereals having crop duration 45 months., Applied 3 split doses for crop having duration more than five, months., Suitability of fertilizers:, ✓, Potassium sulphate is used where quality of crop is required, because KCL reduce the quality of crops., •, , 1, •, , For rice crop: ammonium sulphate is the best., , In acidic soils: Rock phosphate and SSP is used instead, DAP:, • In saline & alkali soils ammonical fertilizers are not, recommended because alkalization of ammonia takes place., 1 Indian soils are universal deficient in Nitrogen and Zinc., 1 - Fertilizer grade indicate the percentage of plant nutrients in a, fertilizer., 1 Fertilizer ratio is the relative proportion of three major, (NPK) plant nutrients., 1 In water logged soils ammonium sulphate is best suitable N, fertilizer., , SOU SCiellee, , 183, , A Competitive Book of Agriculture, , iii111111111fieNaMammenizz?4i:pamawimmmmit,..
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✓, , Potassium chloride or Murate of potash is the most, common and cheap fertilizer among potassic fertilizers., ✓, Potassic fertilizer is suitable for acidic and heavy soils but, not for alkaline soils., ✓, Denitrifying bacteria Pseudomonas and Bacillus., ✓, Conversion of ammonium jn to nitrite in the presence of, nitrosomonas., ✓, Conversion of nitrite to nitrate through: nitrobacter., 1 Nitrogen % in Thiourea: 36.8%., ✓, AM & N -serve are nitrification inhibitors., ✓, In anaerobic soils, sulphates are reduced to hydrogen sulphide, by the action of Desulfovibro bacteria., ✓, Elemental sulphur when applied to the soil is converted to, sulphate by Thiobacillus spp., Bio-fertiliXers or Bio bioinoculants:• These are preparations containing micro organisms that, supply nutrients especially nitrogen and phosphorus., • It can be used through application of seed, and soil or, composting areas with the objective of increasing the, number of such micro-organisms and accelerates certain, microbial process to augment the extent of the availability, of nutrient in a form which can be assimilated by plants., • On the basis of nutrient supply these are broadly classified in, two types:, A. Nitrogen fixation organisms: These are three types., 1. Free living:, a. Aerobic bacteria: Azatobacter chroccum: Free fixers, commonly used for wheat, rice, cotton, sugarcane., b. Anaerobic bacteria: Clostridium, 2. Associative symbiotic:, a. Micro -aerobic: Azo.spirillum: Associated with roots of, grasses inside root symbiosis., • Used for sorghum, pearl millet., 3. Symbiotic fixation:, a. Nodule forming:, (i) Rhizobium., Soil Science, , 184
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•, , Rhizobium increases the yield by 25-30 % in succeeding, crop., Micro flora:, • Bacteria grows well within Ph range of 6.5 to 8.0, • Fungi prefer acidic range 4.5 to 6.5 pH, • While actinomycetes prefer slightly alkaline conditions., Order of micro flora presence in per gram of soil (number basis):, • Bacteria > actinomycetes > fungi > algae, Plants used for nutrient deficiency indicator:, Nutrients, •, , Nitrogen, , •, •, •, •, •, •, , Phosphorus, Potassium, Calcium, , Sodium, Boron, Ferrous, , Indicator plants, Cauliflower, cabbage, Mustard, Potato, , Cauliflower, cabbage, Sugar beet, Turnip, Sunflower, Sorghum, , Plants nutrients:, A. General classification:, 1., , Major or macro -nutrients: Those nutrients which are required, by the plants in concentrations more than 1 ppm are termed as, major or macro -nutrients. These are grouped in to:a. Basic nutrients: C, H, 0 Provides basic structure to plants., b. Primary nutrient: N, P, K, c. Secondary: Ca, Mg, S, , 2., , Minor or micro -nutrients:, •, , 3., 4., 5., 6., 7., 8., , The elements which are required by plants in concentration, less than 1 ppm are put in this category., • They are also called as trace elements or oligo elements., These are Fe, Mn, Zn, Cu, Bo, Cl and Molybdenum., Immobile nutrients: Ca & B, Energy exchange: H & 0, Cation nutrients: K, Ca, Mg, Fe, Mn, Cu, Zn, Anion nutrients: P. B, Mo, Cl, So4, Both anion & cation form: N (NH4 , NO3-), Non metals nutrients: B, Soil Science, , 186, , A Competitive Book of Agiiculture
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B. Other classification of plant nutrients:, L Essential nutrient:, • According to Anion & Stout there are 16 essential nutrients, , for plants e.g C,H 2O,NPK, Ca, Mg, S, Fe, Mn, Mo, B, Zn, Cu, Cl., Nickel is the 17th essential element known in 1987, , •, Criteria of essentiality of plant nutrients:, • Given by Arnon & Stout in 1939., • They stated that plant can't be completed their life cycle, without the deficiency or complete absence of a single, , nutrient among the essential nutrients., • Arnon (1954) refined the criteria of essentiality of nutrients., Liebing Low of Minimum:, • According to Justus Von Liebig (1840), • The growth of plants is limited by the plant nutrient present in, smaller quantity, all others being in adequate amounts. This, has been re -stated as barrel concept., 2. Beneficial nutrients: are four in number• Vanadium (V), Silicon (Si), Cobalt (Co), Sodium (Na)., 3. Functional nutrients:, • The term functional nutrient was proposed by D. J. Nicholas, 1963., • Functional nutrients are (20) = Essential nutrients (16) +, Beneficial nutrients Co, V. Si, Na (4)., • Includes all sixteen essential nutrients in addition to four, beneficial nutrients (Co, V, Si, Na), collectively known as, functional nutrients., ential elements and their form of availability:, SN, 1., , ., , Element, Major nutrients, , Conc. in plants, , Form of uptake, , Carbon (C), Hydrogen (H), , 45%, , Oxygen, Primary nutrients, Nitrogen (N), Phosphorus (P), Potassium (K), , 45%, , CO 2, H2O, H20, 02, , 1.5%, , N1-1 4,, , 0.2%, , H2P 0 -4, HP0 2-, , 1.0%, , K+, , Soil Science, , 6%, , _, , 187, , N 0 -3, , A Competitive Book of Agriculture
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Secondary nutrients, Calcium (Ca), Magnesium (Mg), , 0.5%, 0.2%, , Ca, Mg, , Sulphur (S), , 0.1%, , S 0 2 -4 , SO2, , 100 ppm (0.01%), , Fe + (mainly), Fe +, , Micronutrients, Iron (Fe), , 20 ppm, , - Zinc (Zn), Manganese (Mn), _Boron (B), , 50 ppm, 20 ppm, , Zn----2 +, , Mn2+, - H3B 03(boric acid), , Copper (Cu), Molybdenum (MO), Chlorine (Cl), , 6 ppm, - -CTi2+, <1 ppm ( 0-1PPm) M0042100 ppm, CI, , Nickel (Ni), , 0.1-1.0 ppm, , 1, , —N, ---i'21, , In acidic soils phosphorus is available in H2PO4- form and at, alkaline (high pH) phosphorus is available in PO4-3 form., Most of plants absorbed nutrients in reduced form (e.g. Fe+2, or Mn +2) rather than oxidized form (e.g. Fe +3or Mn+3)., , Soil test rating chart for available nutrients:, Nutrients, , Compounds (units), , Carbon, Nitrogen, , Organic carbon (%), , Phosphorus, Potassium, , Olsen's (kg/ha), Ammonium acetate (kg/ha), , Calcium, Sulphur, , Ammonium acetate, cmol (p)/kg, , Magnesium, , Ammonium acetate, cmol (p)/kg, DTPA extractable (mg/kg), DTPA extractable (mg/kg), DTPA extractable (mg/kg), DTPA extractable (ml .), , 1, , Zinc, Iron, , Manganese, Copper, Boron, Molybdenum, , ,, , Rating, Low, <0.4, , Alkaline KMn04 (kg/ha), , 0.01M CaC12 (kg/ha), , Hot water soluble (k. a), Ammonium oxalate extractable, (phi 3.3) (mg/kg), , <280, <12.5, <135, <1.5, <22.4, <1.0, - <0.6, <4.5, <3.5, <0.2, <0.5, <0.2, , Medium, 0.4-0.75, 281-560, , 12.5-25, , High, > 0.75, > 560, , 135-335, , > 335, , > 1.5, > 35, >1.0, >1.2 ,, > 9.0, , -, , 22.4-35, 0.6-1.2, 4.5-9.0, 3.5-7.0, 0.2-0.4, 0.5-1.0, 0.2-0.4, , >25, , >7.0, . > 0.4, , >1.0, > 0.4, , Role of nutrient:, 1. Nitrogen:, • Impart green colour to plant, encourages vegetative growth., Soil Science, , 188, , A Competitive Book of Agriculture, , ,
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•, , Nitrogen is essential constituent of protein. (JAR!, Ph. D09), • Constituent of protoplasm of chlorophyll and coenzyme., • Play important role in synthesis of auxin, Deficiency:, • Lower leaves become yellow and dries., • 'V' shaped chlorosis on older leaves or yellowing at tip., Disease:, • Starvation disease due to nitrogen deficiency., • Buttoning in cauliflower, 2. Phosphorus:, • Increase the disease resistance,, • Enhance new cell formation and necessary for root, development, • Required for grain formation and maturity of grains, • Phosphorous is essential constituent for nucleic acid &, phytin., • Most essential functions are energy storage and transfer of, energy (ADP and ATP), act as" energy currency"., Deficiency:, • Due to deficiency of single element (phosphorus), the life, cycle of plant can't be completed hence, Phosphorous is, called as" key of life", • Deficiency imparts dark green colour in leaves, • Bronzing appearance on older leaves., • Later develops red purple coloration., Disease:, • Sickle leaf disease., 3. Potassium:, • Most essential function of k+ is stomata regulation, • Provides disease resistant in plants, • Cofactors for enzymes, • Responsible for quality products, • Formation and translocation of sugars, • Helps in chlorophyll formation., Soil Science, , 189, , A Competitive Book of Agriculture
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•, , In plants K+ also reduced the transpiration rate and increase, , photosynthetic rate., •, •, , Because it is stress avoider., Pottash useful in stress condition because it secretes 60, , •, , enzymes, The term luxury consumption is often used to describe, nutrient absorption by the plant that does not influence, , yield e.g. Potassium., , Deficiency symptoms:, Spot of dead tissue at tips., Scorching & burning on margins of bottom leaves., Disease:, • Rosette/die back disease., , Calcium:, • It is constituent of cell wall, • Calcium immobile in plants and deficient symptoms appear, on meristem tip portion., Deficiency:, • Terminal bud die, Disease:, • Tip hooking, • Blossom end rot of tomato (BER), , Magnesium (Mg):, •, •, , Essential constituent of chlorophyll, Magnesium is a constituent of chlorophyll (central atom of, , chlorophyll)., • Chlorosis between veins (mottled chlorosis)., Disease:, • Sand -drown disease of tobacco., Sulphur:, • Sulphur oxidizing bacteria is: Thiobacillus., • Sulphur is essential for oil seeds and pulses because it, improves oil content and protein content in oil seeds and, , •, , pulses, respectively., Thiourea @ lg./liter spray on standing crops best for N 84, deficiency, , Soil Science, , 190, , A Competitive Book of Agriculture
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Disease, • Akiochi of rice due to excess of HS, • Tea yellow disease of tea, Iron, •, Required for nitrogen fixation, •, During respiration act as 02 carrier (leghaemoglobin), • Act as enzyme in oxidation-reduction process, , Deficiency, • Inter veinal complete chlorosis, • Scorching of leaf margin, •, , Yellowing or Iron chlorosis in groundnut., Manganese, • Formation of chlorophyll, • Co -factor of enzyme, • Mn toxicity causes crinkle leaf of cotton, Deficiency, • Dead spot on leaves., Disease, • Pahala blight of sugarcane, • Grey spike of barley/oat, • Marsh spot of pea, Copper:, • Compound of plastocyan in, • Essential for photosynthesis/respiration, • Resetting & excess gumming occurs due to: Copper, •, •, , deficiency., Guminosis and xanthomenia disease of citrus, Die back and reclamation disease due to deficiency of copper, , Boron:, • Necessary for pollen germination, • Boron is the only non metal, •, •, , element among the, , micron utrient, , It is necessary for translocation of sugars and is involved in, reproduction and germination of pollens. (RAS-07), It concerned with water reactions in cells and regulates the, intake of water in to cell, , Soil Science, , 191, , A Cornpetitive Book of Agriculture
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•, , It may act as regulator of potassium ratio and keep calcium in, soluble form within the plants, Taste in cauliflower due to presence of boron, , •, Disease: due to deficiency, • Browning of cauliflower is caused by boron deficiency., • Top sickness of tobacco, • Fruit cracking of tomato, • Hard fruit of citrus, • Hen & chick disease of grape, Zinc:, • In plants its required for biosynthesis of hormones, • White bud of maize is due to deficiency of zinc., • Khaira disease of rice, • Little leaf of cotton, • Mottled leaf of citrus, • Rosette formation, Cobalt:, • It is component of B12, • It is essential for formation of a type of hemoglobin in Nfixing nodule tissue known as leghaemoglobin., • act as 02 carrier in roots, • Also known as animal protein factor., Molybdenum:, • Mo: absorbed as molybdate Mo04-2 forms., • Mo is important component of enzyme: Nitrate reductage., •, •, •, , N -fixation in pulses, Whiptail of cauliflower due to deficiency of Mo., , •, •, , Absorbed as Cl form, High CI- sensitivity crop: Legume and tobacco., , Mo is required for carrot & raphanus for sweetness., Chlorine:, , Other facts:, ✓, Fruit cracking of tomato is due to deficiency of boron., • Reclamation disease also called white tip is caused due t°, deficiency of: Copper., • Sodium (Na) is important constituent of CAM plants., Soil Science, , 19 2, , A Competitive Book of Agriculture
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•, , Silicon absorbed by plants as monosilicic acid and it is, essential for rice. (RAS-7), ✓, Pollen grain sterility of wheat is due to: Deficiency of boron., ,7 Sodium is essential for osmo-regulation., ✓, Sodium: responsible element for drought tolerance in sugar, beet., •, •, ,7, , ✓, ,(, ✓, ✓, , Chlorosis between the veins and veins remain green shows:, Deficiency of mg, Complete inter veinal chlorosis occurs due to: Mn deficiency, In iron deficiency, the principal veins remain conspicuously, green and other portions of the leaf turn yellow tending, towards whiteness., In manganese deficiency, the principal veins as well as the, smaller veins are green., Silicon is essential for: Rice and maize, Black heart of potato is due to deficiency of oxygen., Metabolic transformation of inorganic plant nutrients into, organic plant constituents is known as assimilation., , Terminology:, Catena (Milne):, • An absolute term for a sequence of soils within a soil zone, derived from similar parent material, climatic and age, • But having different soil characteristics due to variation in, relief and in drainage., Caliche:, • A pedologic layer near the surface, more or less cemented by, secondary carbonates of Ca+2 and Mg+2 precipated from the, soil solution., Clod:, • It is an artificial produced compact coherent mass of soil, ranging in size from 2-200 mm., , Crotovina:, • It is typical kind of Chanel in the soil horizon produce by, action of earth worms and other animals and is filled with, organic matter or matter from other horizon., , Soil Science, , 193, , A Competitive Book of Agriculture
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Cat clays:, • Cat clay is clay -sulphate which shines like cat's eye., • Wet clay soils have high amount of sulphur in reduced forms, that upon being drained become extremely acid due to, oxidation of S' compound and formation of sulphuric acid., Solum:, • The horizon A + B combines known as Solum or true soil, Regolith:, • The unconsolidated product of rock by weathering, • Regolith = A + B + C horizons, Regosol:, • Any soil of the azonal order without definite genetic, horizons., Organic soil:, • Soil having at least 20% organic matter in low clay content, soil., Mineral soil:, • Such soil has usually less than 20 % organic matter., • Mineral soils are the biochemically and physically weathered, upper portion of the regolith, Soil eradibility factor (K):, • Soil eradibility factor gives an indication of the soil loss from, a unit plot of 22 m long with a 9 % slope under continuous, fallow. It normally varies from near zero to about 0.6., Soil eradibility:, • It is the susceptibility nature of soil to erosion (mostly <0.1, mm particles)., Soil erosivity:, • Soil erosivity is the capacity of agent causing erosion., Soil colloids:, • Colloidal particles are generally smaller than 1 um (micro, meter) in diameter., • Colloidal solution: size of particles 1 0-6 to 10-9., Micelles (micro cells):, • The individual particle of a colloid is called micelle., Soil Science, , 194, , A Competitive Book of Agriculture
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S. HORTICULTURE, Important facts:, V, Edible part of cauliflower:, V Blanching is an important process of:, V, Whiptail of cauliflower due to:, V Pusa ruby is a variety of:, V, V, V, V, V, V, V, V, V, V, V, V, V, V, V, V, V, V, V, V, V, V, V, , Swaran roopa is the early variety of:, Pajaro: is the variety of:, Bolero is the variety of:, Richest source of vitamin C is:, Largest importer of cut flower in the, world:, The dwarf variety of mango:, California Papershell is the variety of, Fruit of rose known as:, Fruit of okra is:, , Coconut fat rich source of:, Coconut is propagated by:, Mango is mostly propagated through:, Inflorescence of cauliflower known as:, Black heart of potato due to:, Pusa snow ball is a variety of:, India's share in the fruit production in the, World is:, Development of fruits without, , fertilization is called:, Development of embryo without, fertilization is known as:, Oleoresin is an important product of:, Kesar (saffron) belong to the family of:, Concentration of sugar is used for, preservation is:, Mango variety suitable for high density, planting is:, Most salt tolerant fruit crop is:, Horticulture, , 196, , Curd, Cauliflower, Mo deficiency, Tomato, Litchi, Strawberry, Marigold, Barbados cherry, Germany, Am rapali, Almond, Hips, Capsule, Lauric acid, Seeds, Veneer grafting, Cat ken, 0 2 deficiency, Cauliflower, 10%., , Parthenocarpy, .., , Apomixis, , Chilli, Iridiceae, 60-70 %, , Amrapali, Date palm, , A Competitive Book of Agriculture, , ,
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Fruit repining hormone is:, A form of low pruning to about 2 m up to, , V, V, , Ethylene., , Po'larding, , stem is called as:, V, V, V, V, , Early variety of ber is:, Planting season for deciduous plants is:, The variey of date- palm is used for dry, dates (Chhuhara):, All fruits in general nature are of which, , Gola, , Jan- Feb, , Halawi, Acidic, , type:, V, V, V, V, V, V, V, V, , Baradari is an important feature of:, The fruit of pine apple is known as:, By means of `bulbils' which crop is, propogated:, Edible banana fruit is seedless because, of:, Multistoried cropping is popular in:, Which is the late ripening cultivar of ber:, The exclusion of micro-organism is, known as:, Production of off- season vegetables is, , Mughal garden, Sorosis, , Garlic, Ambryo abortion, , Coconut plantation, Umran, Asepsis, Vegetable forcing, , known as:, V, , "Alphanso" variety of mango is grown, , V, V, , in which state, The common chemical preservative for, colorless fruits:, Shade loving annual flower plant is:, The commonly cultivated variety of table, , V, , pea in India is:, Crescent is well known for:, , V, V, V, V, V, V, , Saffron is obtained from:, Grapes are generally dried in:, Sago is prepared from:, Tea is commonly propagated by:, Origin place of Date palm is:, Spacing recommended for Pusa Nanha, , V, , 197, , UP, , KMS, Salvia, Bonneville, , Flower, arrangement, Style and Stigma, Sun, Cassava, Soft wood cutting, , Iraq, 1.25 x 1.25 m`, , A Competitive Book of Agriculture
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van y, pay, Which state is the leading producer of, , The hard fruits of citrus are due to the:, Bael is the richest source of:, Leaves of Bad are used to offer:, Causal organism of Fig rust is:, Peach leaf curl is caused by fungus:, , 'Lord Shiva'., Cerololiumfic,., Tap/irma, deformens., , Sanjose scale is the most serious pest of:, Coffee leaf rust is caused by:, Kent is the mutant variety of:, Rekha, Swarna Rekha Rajjat are of:, Polyembryony present in fruit crop:, , V, , when pollination is carried out by Insects, known as:, Pollination in mango carried by:, , &, , V, V, V, V, V, , V, , Boron deficiency., Vit-B2 (riboflavin), , Apple., Hemelia vestratrix, Coffee., Tuberose varieties, Mango, Citrus,, Jamun., Entomophilous, House flies (Alusca, doinestica), , V, , Pollination in fig carried by:, , V, , Pollination in oil palm is camed by:, , Fig wasp, (Blasiophaga pens), , Weevil (Elaeidobius, spp). NET -2013, , V, , V, V, V, V, V, V, v', , Center of origin of Isabgol and, Sarpagandha is:, Center of origin of Bael, Phalsa and, Kagzilime is:, Origin of orchid is:, Double century is the variety of:, Finest fruit of the world:, Dioecious fruit plants:, , India., India., , Gynodioecious fruit:, Pollu beetle (Longitarsus nigripenis) is, Horticulture, , 198, , *, , V, V, V, V, V, , Phule suwarna, , -, , V, , Bihar, , India, Coconut., Mango Steen., Papaya, Datepaim., Grape, Fig, Black pepper 'JRF-, , A Competitive Book, , of Agriculture, , =, , litchi:, Onion variety suitable for export, having yellow colour:, , &, , I
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s/, , the pest of:, Pest of sweet potato weevil:, , 09), , Cylas formicarius, (JRF-05), , Pusa chikni is a variety of:, V The clove required for planting garlic/ha, is:, V Cucumber native of:, V Water melon native of:, V Sponge gourd is:, ./, Most serious disease of rose:, V Tissue culture is common in:, V Annud flower of Indian origin:, V Popular climber of Indian origin:, V Annual flower suited for planting in, shade is:, V Karonda: richest source of:, V Maroon: is the variety of:, V Powdery mildew disease in mango is, caused due to:, Naphthalene, acetic acid (NAA) is used to, V, control:, V Following vegetable is known as, multivitamin greens:, In which flower arrangement fruit,, v, flower & foliage are used:, V Clove, commonly used spice is taken, from which part of the plant:, V Higher temperature induces which type, of flower in bottle gourd:, v Planting system enabling maximum nu.of, plants in the orchard:, V Cricket ball and Murrabba are the, popular varieties of:, V Scartlet gol and Red fuzi are the high, yielding varieties of:, 1 The chemical used to prevent sprouting, , .7, , Horticulture, , 199, , Sponge gourd, 500 kg, India., T. Africa, Luffa cylindirica., Die back, Orchid, Gomphrene, Gloriosa superba, Cineraria., Iron., Karonda., Odium mangiferae., , Mango, Malformation, Chekurmams, Morimona, , Flower, Male, , Hexagonal, Sapota., Apple., MH (Maleic, , A Competitive Book of Agriculture
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1, , during storage of onion is:, Rayan as rootstock is most accepted and, , hydrazid e ), Sapota., , V, , commercial method of:, Most promising rootstock for mandarins, , Rangpur lime., , 1, , and sweet orange is:, Tea mosquito bug (Helopellis antonit), is a pest of:, , Cashew., , I, , Coffee berry borer (Hypothenemus, , Coffee., , ,./, , hampei) is a serious pest of:, Trimming: removal of undesired plant, parts generally practice is done in, , Rose and marigold, , •7, V, V, V, V, V, V, V, V, V, V, .,/, , V, V, V, V, V, V, , Bromalin: enzyme obtained from:, Aroma in fruits is due to presence of:, Acid content is a very important, consideration for the preparation of:, Domestic quarantine in India exist for:, , In the grafting upper part of stem is, called:, In onion bolting takes place due to:, Hand pollination is most useful in:, Highest source of energy:, , Hogarth curve is also known as:, Fruit of new world:, Orchid is propagated by:, Most important fruit used in processing, industries in India:, Pagoda is a name of:, Red colour in jelly is due to:, Vista vision is a theme for:, A vegetable crop of which all parts are, edible is:, Sex form of pointed gourd is:, Sex form of cucumber is:, Horticulture, , 200, , Pineapple, Esters, Jelly, Sanjose scale, Scion, , High temperature, Date palm, Walnut (contains, maximum fat), Line of beauty, Avocado, Micropropogation, Pine apple, , Japanese, monument, Charring of sugar, Landscape, Winged bean, , Dioecious, Monoecious, , A Competitive Book of Agriculture
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V, , The best site for the seed production of, temperate type varieties of vegetables is:, , Hills, , V, , Edible part of lettuce is:, , V, , Edible part of parsley is:, , Leaf, Leaves, Leaf stalk, , Edible portion of celery is:, ✓, Asparagus is a perennial crop, •, Edible parts of asparagus is: Underground young shoots (known, as spears), V Sex ratio in cucurbits is modified by. Silver nitrate, 1/, , V, , Bolting (emergence of seed stalk prior to their time of formation), is a disorder of: Onion, , V, , Blindness (absence of curd/head in cole crops) is a disorder of:, Cole crops, Buttoning (Formation of small curds in cauliflower) is due to:, Deficiency of nitrogen, Blanching in vegetables is done for: To inactivate enzyme, activities, Seed of carrot is VOIONN n as: Schizocarp, Forking of carrot is due to: Compact soil, Han esting stage for long distance transport of muskmelon is:, Half slip stage, Chief pollinating agent in onion is: Honey bee, Sex form of water melon is: Monoecious, Seed rate of hybrid tomato is: 100-150 g/ha, Origin of cucumber: India, Physiological process responsible for rapid deterioration of fruits, and vegetables is: Respiration, Serious disease of cumin is: wilt, Sugary disease is common in fennel is caused by: Virus, , v, ✓, V-, , ✓, , -, , v, ✓, ✓, ✓, ✓, , •, ✓, ✓, ✓, ✓, •, ✓, ✓, , Vitamin C act as: Anti -oxidants, Tuberization of potato require: Short day length, The element which improve quality of fru k: Boron, Edible part of knoll khol is: Swollen .%tem, Onion varieties suitable for dehydration are: White coloured, Anti -fungal factor in onion is: Catechol, Vitamin lost during processing is: Vitamin C, , s, , 4, , Hortkulture, , A, rk 4, •LI4, , 201, , 411111111111211mommommo, , A Competitive book of Agrocutture
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Vegetables leading in area:, •, , Potato % Onion >Tomato, , Leading in production:, • Potato > Onion > Tomato, • Highest onion production in the state: Maharashtra., • Total vegetable production highest in West Bengal followed, by Uttar Pradesh., Classification of fruits:, A. According to Fruit ripening condition:, Climacteric fruits: (Fruit can ripe after removing from plants)., Mango, Banana, Sapota, Guava, Papaya, Apple, Fig, Plum, Peach, Pear, 2. Non -climacteric: (Don't ripe after picking)., Citrus, Grape, Pineapple, Pomegranate, Litchi, Ber, 3. Day neutral plant:, Guava, Papaya, Banana, B. According to Climate:, 1. Tropical:, Banana, Mango, Pine apple, Papaya, Coconut, Cashew, 2. Temperate:, Apple, Strawberry, 3. Sub tropical:, Phalsa, Litchi, Badl, Citrus, Guava, C. According to Fruit type:, Hortsculture, , 203, , Almond, Starberry, Ber, Grape, Date palm, Pomegranate, Fig, Aonla, A Comperstive Book of Agricu lture
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Berry:, Banana, Grape, Date palm, 2. Drupe/ Stone:, Mango, Coffee, Almond, 3. Balausta:, 4. Amphisarca:, , 1., , 5. Pepo:, 6. Pome:, 7. Hesperidium:, 8. Syconus:, 9. Sorosis:, , Papaya, Arecanut, Guava, Ber, Coconut, Jamun, Pomegranate, Bael, Water melon, Apple, Citrus, Fig, Pineapple, Litchi, Cashew, Carrot, Okra, Aonla, , 10. Nut:, 11. Schizocarp:, 12. Capsule:, D. According to Edible part of fruits:, •, Pericarp:, • Mesocarp:, V Endosperm:, ✓, Thalamus:, ✓, Placenta:, • Fleshy aril:, Bracts:, ✓, Juicy seed coat:, 1 Juicy placental hairs:, • Fleshy receptacle:, , Ber, Papaya, Mango, Coconut, Apple, Strawberry, Bael, Litchi, Pineapple, Pomegranate, Citrus, Fig, , Daily requirement: (per day per capita):, • Cereals:, 475 g, • Pulses:, 80 g, •, •, •, , Fruits:, 120 g, Vegetables:, 285 g .300 9Milk:, 240 g, Sugar, 40g, Nutritive value of fruits and vegetables:, A Competitive nook of Agriculture, 204, Horticulture
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1. 1. 1, , Nutrients, - Vitamin A, , Fruit, , . 1 , 1 1 1 1 A rl i n a, , Vegetable, Bathua leaves 11,300 IU/100g, , Vitamin-BI/Thymine, , Mango 4800 IU/100g, Papaya 2020 IU/100g, Cashew nut, , Chilies 0.55 mg/100 g, , Vitamin B2/Riboflavin, , Bad l > papaya, , Fenugreek leaves, , Vitamin C/Ascorbic acid, , Barbados Cherry 2000 mg, Aonla 600 mg/100 g, , Coriander leaves 135 mg/I 00 g, , Carbohydrates, , Raisins (dehydrated grape), , Topica (38.1%), , Protein, , Cashew nut 21.2%, , Peas (7.2/100g), , Fat, , Walnut 64.5%, , Potato 11.8g/100g, , Fiber, , Fig, , Potato, , Calcium, , Litchi 0.21%, , Agathi 1130 mg/100g, , Phosphorus, , Almond > Cashew nut, , Amaranthus 800 mg/100g, , Iron, , Dry Karonda 39.1 %, Date palm (pind) 10.6%, , Amaranthus 22.9%, , Calorific value, , Walnut 687calorie/100g, , Tapioca 338 calorie/100g, , Major Nutritional Deficiency diseases:, , ✓, 1, , Fruit cracking in apple, Internal necrosis of Aonla, , Deficiency of, nutrient:, Boron, Boron, , •, , Hen & chicken disease of grape, , Boron, , 1, , Hollow heart/ heart rot of sugar beet, , Boron, , 1, , Fruit cracking of pomegranate, , Boron, , 1, , Necrosis/black tip of mango, , Boron, , 1, , Die back, little leaf & gummosis of citrus, , Copper, , N, (, , Browning & whiptail of cauliflower, , Molybdenum, , 1, , Buttoning of cauliflower, , Nitrogen, , 1, 1, , Grey spike of oat/Pahala blight of sugarcane, Khaira disease of rice & white bud of maize, , Manganese, Zinc, , Disease, , Causes of colour/bitterness in fruits/vegetables:, Yellow colour in papaya is due to:, Caricaxanthin, Horticulture, , 205, , A Competitive Book of Agriculture
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Redness of apple is due to:, , V, V, V, , _, , Red colour in tomato is due to:, , Red colour in chilli is due to:, , V, , Pungency in chilli is due to:, , V, , Orange colour in carrot is due to:, , Anthocyanin., Lycopine., Capcyanthin., Capsaicin., Carotene., Anthocyanin, , Red colour in carrot is due to:, _, —Yellow colour in turmeric is due to: Curcumin, Memordicocite., Bitterness in bitter gourd is due to:, Cucurbitacin, Bitterness in cucumber is due to:, , V, V, V, V, V, , ---., ----., —, _, _, _, , V, , Yellow colour of onion is due to:, Red colour in onion is due to:, Punaeno, ,_ . in onion is due to:, , V, , Pungency in raphanus is due to:, , V, , Pungency in mustard is due to:, , Quercetin, Anthocyanin, Allyl propyl di -sulphide lsocyanate, Glucosilates, , IV, , Pungency in garlic is due to:, , Alycine/amino acid, , !V, , Green colour in potato tuber due to:, Sour taste of gram leaves is due to:, , Solanin, Malic/oxalic acid, , V, , V, V, V, , Pungency in pepper is due to:, Oleoresin, Pungency in cabbage leaves due to: Sinigrin, Epithets for fruits/crops and others:, ✓, King of fruits, Mango, ✓, Queen of fruits, Litchi /Ma o S -teen, ✓, King of pulses:, Gram, ✓, Queen of pulses:, Pea, ✓, Queen of spices:, Cardamom, ✓, Queen of flowers:, Gladiolus Rohe, ✓, Food of god:, Cocoa, ✓, Queen of beverage:, Tea, ✓, King of temperate fruits:, Apple, ✓, Butter fruits:, Avocado, ✓, King of arid fruits:, Ber, ✓, Poor man's fruits:, Ber, Horticulture, , 206, , A Competitive Book of Agalcultals
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✓, , Kalp vrkasha:, Coconut, • Miracle fruit:, China kiwi fruit, ✓, White gold:, Cotton, ✓, Century plant:, Date palm, ✓, Adam's fig:, Banana, . / King of forest:, Teak, Location and site selection of orchard:, a., , Location:, •, Refers to geographical of the field in relation to city,, highway, town etc. (Pre P.G-05), , b. Site of orchard:, •, Place in relation to topography, altitude, water body and, , other factor which affect tree behaviaring., Factors affecting selection of site:, 1. Land slope:, •, , Should not be more than 5%. If slope more than 15%, unsuitable for orchard., 2. Direction of slope:, • Southern slope receive more sunshine hence produce, early flowering so, early crop can be taken., 3. Soil fertility:, • High fertility requiring crops: Mango, citrus, grape., • Poor fertile crops are: Phalsa, aonla., 4. Soil texture:, • Light texture for papaya and Ber., Training of orchard:, • Refers to judicious removal of plant parts to develop a proper, shape of plant capable of bearing heavy crop load., • While pruning defined as the judicious removal of parts like, root, leaf, flower, fruit etc. to obtain good and qualitative, yield., Method of training:, a. Center leader system (this method not suitable for high, altitude and hot arid places where wind velocity is high), b. Open center system (not suitable for frost prone area)
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c., , Modified leadership system (this is most acceptable for, , commercial fruit production., Training system for grape vines:, a. Head system: (suitable for less vigorous cultivar & it is very, , simple and inexpensive), b. Kniffin: (also known as 4 -canes system), c. Telephone system (6 -canes system, suitable for vigorous, cultivar), Pruning:, • Refers to removal of plant part especially shoots, roots, buds, etc. to obtain better and qualitative yield is termed as pruning, • Pruning is started in later part of plant life when becomes, produce fruits and flowers., Method of pruning:, a. Thinning:, • Selective or complete removal of plant parts is termed as, thinning, b. Ringing or girdling (NET -08), • In this method a circular ring measuring about 3 cm in, length is removed to hasten bearing by allowing greater, accumulation of photosynthesis in upward portion of the, plant., • This is important practiced is done in grapes., c. Notching:, • Making a notch above a bud by removing a wedge shaped, piece of bark is termed as notching, • It checks the influence of hormone and encourages, growth, • Notching is commonly practiced done in Fig, Lay out of orchard:, • it includes system of planting and planting distance., System of planting:, a. Square system:, • Simplest and widely adopted /popular method, • In this method R x R and P x P distances are kept similar', • The plants are planted exactly at right angle at each, corner., Horticulture, , 208, , A Competitive Book of Agriculture
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• Number of plants/ha = 10,000 m2/x2, • Where, x2= R x R/P x P., b. Rectangular system:, • More plants can be planted as compare to square system., • Keeping more space between row to row and plant to, plant distance is kept comparatively less., • Number of plants = 10,000 m2/X x Y., c. Hexagonal or equilateral triangle system:, • It accommodated 15% more plants than square system., • The plants are planted at the corner of equilateral triangle., •, •, , This is very intense method of planting and difficult to, layout., Requires fertile land., , d. Quincunx system/diagonal/filler system:, , •, , •, , •, •, •, , Most suitable in highly fertile soil., This method is similar to square system but an additional, , 'filler' plant is planted in the center of square., Almost double number of plants can be planted than, square method., The most common filler plants are papaya, banana, date, palm etc., , Filler plants give additional income for non bearing, orchard., e. Contour system:, • Adopted in hilly areas, , • Planting distance is not uniform., f. Triangular system:, • It is mostly used in HDP (high density planting)., • E.g. Amrapali variety of mango., , Commercial propagation methods of major fruit crops:, Fruit crop, Propagation method, • Citrus, Seeds/Air layering, • Grape, Hardwood cutting, • Pomegranate, Cutting/Air layering, • Tea, Softwood cutting, A Competitive Book of Agricui;,., Horticulture, 209
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✓, ✓, ./, ✓, ✓, •, ✓, , Edible part of mango is known as:, Mesocarp., Highly cross pollinated mediated by:, House fly, India's rank in mango production:, First (50% of world), State first in mango production is:, Uttar Pradesh, Mango is the richest source of:, Vitamin A, Rumani used for dwarfing effect in:, Dasheri, Major pest of mango: Mango hopper (Amritodus atkinsoni), Major disease of mango: Powdery mildew, Mango malformation is due to: Low temperature & fungL, Spongy tissue is due to: Convection heats., Internal fruit necrosis is due to: Boron deficiency., Deblossoming is done for: Control of malformation., Clustering or jhumka in mango is due to: Low temperature,, improper pollination and poor fertilization, Mango is a climacteric and tropical fruit, In mango, only 0.1 % flower develops fruits to maturity., VHT (vapor heat treatment) is recommended for disinfection, of mango against fruit flies and stone weevil., Kanyakumari and Maduri distriictts of Tamil Nadu produces, , VI, , two crops of mango in a year., Alphonso: most commonly grown in Maharastra, Propagation of mango is done by the method: Veneer, grafting, , •, •, , Sal sugandha: It is regular bearing variety and free from, malformation., Soil: Well drained loamy soil., Planting time: Jun -July., Distance: 10-12 m, Amrapali: 2.5 x2.5 m- (1600 plants/ha)., , Propagation:, • Commercial method is: Veneer grafting (April -Oct.)., • Recent method: Epicotyl stone grafting (in Konkan, MH.), • Other method: m arching & Soft wood grafting, • Soft wood grafting method, standardized by Dr. R.S Amin at, GAU, Gujarat., _ Varieties:, IVanetyiety, , Character, , Horticulture, , 211, , A Competitive 600k of Agriculture
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•, , f., , Niranjan and Madhulica, Poly embryonic varieties:, • ()lour, Goa, • Chandrakaran, Bellary, , • Mulgoa, Insect -pests:, a. Mango mealy bug: Drasicha mangiferae (Family: Margodidae), • It is major pest of mango., • Nymph and adult suck the cell sap from leaves and tender, , trunks., Management:, • Alkathene banding 30-45 cm wide & 30 cm above ground., • Spray carbaryl @ 0.25%., b. Mango Hoppers: Amritodes atkinsoni, • Nymph and adult suck cell sap., c. Stem borer: Bactocera rufomaculata., d. Fruit fly: Bactocera dorsalis, • Use vapour heat treatment (VHT) for export of mango, e. Stone weevil: Sternochetus mangiferae:, • Use of irradiation., • This is quarantine importance pest. (ARS-07), Diseases:, a. Powdery mildew: Oidium mangiferae, • Severe during Feb -March., • Spray Karathane 0.1%., b. Anthracnose: Colletotrichum gloesporoides, • Severe in humid and high rainfall area., c. Malformation: Fusarium monilliformae var. suhglutinana, • Vegetative and floral malformation; bunchy top appearance, • It is a serious problem in north India (in PB, Delhi & UP)., • Bombay green and Chausa more susceptible., Management:, • Pruning, • Spay of Mencozeb @ 2g/liter., • Spray of NAA or planofix @ 200 ppm by deblossoming at, bud burst stage., Physical disorders:, Horticulture, , 213, , A Competitive Book of Agriculture
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Black tip: Due to deficiency of boron., • Near brick kilns distal end of affected fruits get turned, black and become hardened., • Smoke of brick -kilns containing gases like CO, CO 2, SO2&, Acetylenes are responsible for this., Management:, • Orchard planting away from brick kilns at least 1 km, , a., , distance., Three spray of borax (0.6%) (before flowering, during, flowering and at fruit set), • Borax contains: 11% boron., b. Spongy tissue: Due to soil heat convection (high temp.), • Major problem in Alphonso, • Fruit from outside look normal, but inside a patch of flesh, becomes spongy, yellowish., • It is also known as internal break down., Resistant varieties:, • Neelam and Deshehari are almost free from it., • Other new resistant varieties: Arka aruna, Ratna, Arka, puneet. Arka anmol etc. are free from spongy tissue., c. Leaf scorching: Due to Potassium deficiency., • Spray Potassium sulphate 5%., d. Internal necrosis: Boron deficiency., • Management: Application of boron /borax @ 0.6 %, e. Alternate bearing:, •, On year:, Bears flowering., •, Off year:, Bears no flowering., • It is problem especially in Dashehari, Langra and Chausa., Management:, • Application of Cultar (Paclobutrazol), it induces flower, • Planting regular bearing varieties: Amrapali, Neelam and, Ratna., 2. Banana/kalpatharu: Musa sp., Musaceae, ✓, India is the largest producer of banana in the world., • Propogated by suckers/corrns., ✓, Weight of sword suckers generally used: 5U0 -750 g, I Most of cultivated banana is: Trip/oh/in nature, •, , Horticulture, , 214, , A Competitive Book of Agriculture
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•, V, , ✓, V, , In banana commonly found: Vegetative parthenocarpy, Diploid banana variety is: Lady finger, Cut rhizomes used for propagation is known as: Peepers, Seedlessness in banana is controlled by spray of:2, 4-D @ 25, PPni•, , High density 1.2 x 1.2m to 1.5 x 1.5m is common now days., For the ripening of banana is used low concentration of, ethylene with 15-18 °C in controlled chamber. But use of, acetylene is not good., Banana fruits can be stored at 13 °C temperature & 85-95%, humidity for three weeks. (RPSC-AO 2012), Varieties:, •, Dwarf eavandish, Robusta, •, •, •, , Rasthali, Honda, , Poovan, Champa, , Nendran (Kerala and TN), Disease:, a. Panama wilt: Fusarium oxysporium pv cubensis., b. Sigatoka leaf spot: Cercospora musicola, C. Bunchy top: Viral, transmitted by banana aphids., d. Moko disease: Pseudomonas solanacearum (bacteria), e. Kokkan disease: Viral, transmitted by aphids, Insect -pest:, a. Rhizome weevil: Cosmopolitus sordisus., • It is mono phagus pest of banana (JRF-09), b. Aphids: Pentalonia nigronervosa, vector of Bunchy top, virus., 3. Citrus fruits:, , (a) Mandarin: Citrus reticuiata•, • Most common among citrus fruits grown in India., ✓, Mandarins are highly susceptible to: Water logging., ✓, Mandarin, sweet orange, acid lime and grape fruit are: Highly, ✓, , polyembryonic., Citrus fruits have a special kind of fruit skin referred as:, , ✓, , Leathery rind., Spacing of lime, lemon and sweet orange is: 6 m x 6m, , Horticulture, , 215, , A Competitive Book of Agriculture
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Kinnow can be grown in HDP by using "Troyer citrange" as, a rootstock by spacing the plants at 1.8 x 1.8 m2., Varieties of mandarin:, 1, , •, •, •, , Laddu., , Coorg: commercial variety in south India., Kinnow: Cross between King Sweet x Willow Leaf, mendarins developed by H.B. Frost, USA -1935). It first, introduced in Punjab, , (b), , Sweet Orange: C. sinensis., Preharvest fruit drop is common in citrus., 1 It can be checked by spray of 2, 4-D @ 20 ppm., • Ranpur lime is the best rootstock for mosambi., • T' budding or Patch budding are most common method for, sweet orange propagation., Varieties:, •, • Satgudi Mosambi, •, •, , Blood red, Jaffa, Pine apple, Valencia, Kagzi lime: C. aurcmtifolia, , 1, 1, 1, , known as Acid lime/sour lime., Acid lime commonly propagated by seeds., , (c), , Kagzi lime (C. aurantifolia) is the indicator plant for, Tristeza (highly susceptible to this disease)., 1 Citrus canker is most serious disease of acid lime., Varieties of kagzi lime:, • Chakradhar: Seedless variety of acid lime., • Pramalini: Good yielder, • Mithachikna: sweet, juicy variety., • Sai sarbati: Tolerant to tristeza and canker., Diseases of citrus:, a. Gummosis: Phytophthora spp., b. Bacterial canker: Xanthontonas compestris p.v dirt, (transmitted by leaf minor), c. Tristeza: Virus (vector is aphids: Toxoptera sp.), d. Citrus greening: Earlier Mycoplasma (now causal organism, is Ca liberobacter, a gram negative, walled, bacteria)., Horticulture, , 216, , A Competitive Book of Agriculture
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• Transinitted by citrus psylla, Diaphorina curl, e. Exocortis: Viroids., , Physiological disorder:, a. Granulation: Due to high temperature & R.H. during, ripening. It managed by spray lime & application of 2,4-D, (12 ppm), b. Exanthema: Copper deficiency., c. Yellow leaf of citrus: Mo deficiency., d. Die back due to: Cu deficiency, e. Little leaf: Cu deficiency, , Insect -pest of citrus:, Psylla: Diaphorina curl (vector of greening disease), Leaf minor: Phyllocnistis cure/la (vector of citrus canker), Aphids: Toxoptera auranti (vector of Tristeza disease), Lemon butterfly: Pupil° demoleus. (Controlled by bagging, of fruits)., e. Fruit sucking moth: Othreis fullonica (only adult suck the, juice from ripening fruits), 4. Papaya: Cakica papaya (Caricaceae), ,( Papaya is a: Polygamous plant. Produces fruits throughout, the year., 1 It is a tropical fruit and more sensitive to frost, 1 Yellow pigment in papaya: Caricaxanthin. (RPSC, A0-09), 1 Milk (lactate) obtained from unripe fruit of papaya: Papain, • In dioecious varieties of papaya: 10% male plants are planted, Papaya is commercially propagated by: Seed, v( Seed rate of papaya: 250-300 g/ha, ,f Enzyme present in dried latex of papaya is: Pepsin, • Carp me obtained from papaya is utilized as: Diuretic and, heart stimulant, • Recommended spacing for Pusa nanha is: 1.25 x 1.25 m 2, (6000 plants/ha)., ,/ Frost is the most limiting factor in papaya in: North India, • Papaya is susceptible to: Water logging, • Most serious disease of papaya seedlings is: Damping off, Cynodioecious varieties: `DMCTSS', • Pusa delicious, a., b., c., d., , Horticulture, , 217, , A Competotwe Book of Agriculture
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•, •, •, •, •, , Pusa majesty (nematode resistance), Coorg honey dew, Taiwan (blood red coloured), Sllrya (RPSC, AA0-09), Sunrise solo (pink flesh), Dioecious varieties:, • Pusa giant (used in canning), • Pusa dwarf, • CO -5 (for papain production)., • Pant C-1, • Betty, • Hatras gold, • Pusa nanha (extremely dwarf, suitable for HDP/pot garden)., Diseases:, (d) Damping off/stem rot is due to: Pythium aphanidermatum., (e) Ring spot: Viral, • Upper leaves of papaya is Mottled., • Transmitted by aphids (Aphis gossip!)., (1) Papaya leaf curl: Viral, • Transmitted by white flies., Management:, • Both white flies and aphids can be managed by spraying, of any systemic insecticides i.e. Acephate @ 1.0 mllliter, of water or Dimethoate 30 EC @ 1 ml/liter of water or, • Imidacloprid @ 0.5 ml/liter of water with Streptocyclin, a 0.1 g /liter of water is also effective., 5. Pome granate: Punica granalum (Punicaceae)., ✓, It is highly drought tolerant among fruit crops., 1,4 Origin of pomegranate probably: Iran, ✓, Pigment responsible for the red colour in pomegranate fruits:, Anthocyanin., India has first position in the world with respect to, pomegranate area and production., bi In India Maharashtra is the leading state in area and, production followed by KR, AP, GJ, TN and RAJ., • Juice of pomegranate is useful for patient suffering from, leprosy., A Competitive Book pf Agriculture, Horticulture, 218
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•, •, ✓, ✓, •, , July -August is ideal time of planting in tropics., , Ambe bahar is most commonly preferred by the growers, because of high yield as compared to other flowering season., Wild type Anar is known: Daru, Presently Bhagawa is the leading variety of pomegranate, cultivation in India specially in Maharashtra., Propagated by stern cutting and air layering (Gootee)., , 'Uttar treatment (Crop regulation):, SN, I, , Bahar, Annbe, , Flowering time, Jan- Feb., , Harvesting, Jun -August, , 2, , Mrig, , June -July, , Nov -Jan., , Hasta, , Sept -Oct., , Feb- April, , Varieties:, SN Variety, Jalore seedless, 1, _2, Ganesh, Kandhari, 3, 4, Arakta, Mridula, 5, 6, Ruby, Dolka, 7, 8 - Bhagawa, 9, 10, , Amlidana, Wonderful, , Remark, More flowering and high, yield., Fruit quality is not very, good,, More prone to, insect -pest and diseases., High flowering, Good, fruit quality & colour,, Preferred for export., , _Features, Commonly grown in Rajasthan, Selection from Alandi, popular in MU, Medium fruit, Suitable fro processing, Cross from Ganesh x Gul a -Shah red, It is hybrid from a 3 way cross from IIHR, , Grow in Gujarat, Bright red coloured, popular in MH, also, known as Shendari, Mastani, Jai maharastra, Ganesh x Nanha (new pomegranate hybrid), Originating from USA, fruit size large (ay., 700g wt.)., , Insect -Pests:, Horticulture, , 219, , A Competitive Book of Agriculture
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•, •, , Umran: Originating from Rajasthan (RPSC, A0-09), Illaichi: Triplets variety, Found pollen sterility, Katha:, Pathani:, , •, •, , Diseases:, •, , Powdery mildew: Odium jujube var indica., , Insect -Pest:, •, Fruit fly Carpomia vesuviana, 7. Guava: Psidium guajava (Myrtaceae), , Practice of tacking winter crop instead of rainy season crop, is known as crop regulation (to escapes the attack of fruit, flies)., , Stooling is the most common & cheapest method of guava, propagation., Allahabad region of UP is known for best quality guava, production., , ,7, 1, , Guava can tolerate salinity but is susceptible to soil acidity., Rainy season crop can be removed by spraying of urea at the, time of peak flowering period., Wilt is serious problem in guava (common in Alkali soil), Varieties:, • Allahabad safeda, • Lucknow-49 (known as Sardar), • Chittidar (numerous red dots on skin)., • Harijha (popular in Bihar), • Hafsi (Red fleshed guava), • Behat coconut (seedless guava), • Lalit (pink flesh fruit, dual purpose fruit), • Kohir safed, • Arka mridula (soft seeded, dwarf variety), • Allahabad Safeda: famous variety of Allhabad, • Allahabad Surkha (fruit with deep pink flesh), • Apple colour: (pink coloured), 1, s/, , Hybrid:, • Hybrid -45 = Allahabad safeda x Sardar (L-49)., Disease:, a. Guava wilt: Fusariunt oxysporium p.v. Psidii., Horticulture, , 221, , A Competitive Book of Agriculture
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Symptoms:, • Wilting appearance of plants and leaves of young plants is, dries up., Management:, • Soil drench with Carbendazim/Bavistin @ 2g/liter water., • Grow resistant varieties i.e. Allahabad Safeda. (RAS -09), Insect pest:, a. Striped mealy bug: Ferrisa virgata, serious pest in South India, b. Guava tea mosquito bug: Helopeltis antonh: (JAR]. Ph. D- 07), c. (Corky out growth/scab formation in guava), Physiological disorder:, a. Bronzing: Due to Zn deficiency, 8. Aonla: Emblica officinalis (Euphorbiaceae), ‘4 It is also known as Indian gooseberry is an indigenous fruit, • Propogation by patch budding in north india., • Aonla fruits is contains vitamin C. 600 mg/100g, ,4 Large sized, sound fruits are mostly utilized for:, preservation and candy, Varieties:, Varieties, Features, Banarasi, Early maturity, best for Murrumba, ., Kanchan, Regular bearing, known as NA -4, ., Chakia, Alternate bearing, _, Suffers, from, fruit, necrosis,, also, named, as, Francis, Hathijhool, Disease:, a. Ring rust: Ravenelia Emblica, it is serious disease in aonla., b. Fruit necrosis: B -deficiency. Francis variety highly suffered, Insect -Pest:, a. Bark eating caterpillar: Indarbella quadrinotata., 9. Grape: Vitis vinifera, Vitaceae, • Ideal time of planting unrooted grape cuttings is: October., • Rooted cuttings are planted in January -February., *4 Grape is a deciduous crop., ✓ Propagated by hard wood cuttings., Horticulture, , 222, , A Competitive Book of Agriculture
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Thompson seedless with its clone occupies 55% area under, grape cultivation., .7 Training system of grapes which is mostly adopted in India, is: Bower system., , Element that is universal deficient in grape is: Mg, •, •, •, , Tartaric acid is present in grape fruits, In northern India grapes are pruned in: December -January, The chemical used to reduce post harvest fruit drop in grape, is: NAA (50 ppm)., Outstanding cultivar of raisin (dehydrated grape) is: Kismis, Rely, , Varieties of grape:, Varieties, , Arka Kanchan, Thomson Seedless, , Features, Wine purpose, White wine, Late maturity variety, Mostly grown variety, , Muscat, , Coloured seeded variety, , Perlette, , -, , Anab-e-Shahi, , -, , Arka Trishna & Soma, Dilkhush, Arka Hans, , Diseases:, a. Downy mildew: Plasmophora viticola (major disease), b. Powdery mildew: Etysiphe viii, Physiological disorder:, a. Hen & Chicken disease is due to: Bo deficiency., b. Berry or Blossom drop in Grape: Improper pollination &, fertilization., c. Pink berry formation is due to: High temp, common in, Thompson seedless., d. Calyx end rot: Ca deficiency., Insect -pests:, a. Thrips: Rhiphiphothrips cruntatus•, • It can be managed by spray malathion 50 EC @ Iml/liter, b. Flea beetle: Scelodenta strigicollis, Horticulture, , 223, , A Competitive Book of Agriculture
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insinr.2, , -, , Vegetable production, Important points:, Vegetables are rich source of vitamins and minerals., India 2'd largest producer of vegetable after China., • Vegetable crops in India occupy only 2.8 % of the total cropped, area., ✓ India accounts for 13.38 % of World production of vegetables., ✓, State having largest area and production of vegetables: West, Bengal, ✓, State having maximum productivity of vegetable: Tamil Nadu, ✓, Market garden is very intensive method of vegetable cultivation., ✓ Truck garden is very extensive method of vegetable cultivation., ✓ Green leafy vegetables are rich source of follic acid., ✓ Major mineral present in fruit and vegetable is potassium., ✓, Cucumber is the non climacteric vegetable fruits., • Quecertin compound presence in onion and garlic protection, against cancer and heart disease., ✓ Vitamin present in chilli is: Vitamin P., • The garlic flavor is due to sulphur compound: Di ally! di, sulphide, 1 Flower colour of pointed gourd, bottle gourd and chilli is:, White. (ARS-09), ✓ Flower colour of all cruciferous is: Yellow, ✓ Popular variety of pumpkin is: Pusa vishwas and Arka chandan, • Arka harit and Pusa visesh are varieties of bitter gourd, • Pointed gourd propagated by vine cutting @ 2000-2500, cuttings/ha., ✓ Ridge gourd commercially trained on kniffin system., 1 Pusa nasdar and Satputia (hermaphrodite) are the varieties of, ridge gourd., • Pusa supria and Pusa chikni are varieties of sponge gourd., • PBOG-1, Pusa manjari and Pusa maghdoot are the varieties of:, Bottle gourd, 1 Pine sett and Pusa sanyog are varieties of: Cucumber, 1 Pusa parvati is mutant variety of French bean., Pusa suffaida and Pusa lal are the variety of: Sweet potato., Horticulture, , 225, , A Competitive Book of Agriculture
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• Onion, Cabbage, Radish, • Cauliflower, • Palak, Carrot, • Turnip, Potato (Flowering point of view), b. Short day vegetables:, • Sweet potato, Cluster ban, c. Day neutral vegetables:, • Tomato, Brinjal, • Chili, Okra, • Cucurbits, Cowpea, 4. Classification of vegetables based on presence of male/female., a. Dioecious vegetables: both male & female flowers are present, on separate plant. Examples are:•, Pointed gourd, Beet root, •, , Spinach, b. Monoecious: both flowers are present on same plant., • Cucurbits, Cassava, •, Amaranths, 1., , Tomato: Lycopersicon esculenturn, Solanaceae, Botanical name of tomato:, Lycopresicon esculentutn, Origin of tomato:, Peru, Fruit of tomato is:, Berry, Red colour in tomato due to:, Lycopine, Popular variety of tomato:, Pusa ruby, Arka vikas, VI, Seed rate of tomato:, 350-400 gm/ha, Fruit borer (Helicoverpa sp.), Major pest of tomato:, vi Tomato susceptible for:, Frost, VI, Tomato fruits generally regarded as: Protective food, In adverse conditions tomato crop is sprayed with: PCPA for, higher fruit setting., vi, Punjab chhuhara is determinate variety of tomato, A period of drought followed by sudden heavy irrigati 011, during fruiting may cause cracking of fruits, Chemical used for tomato sauce preservation: Sodioni, benzoate, V I, , Horticulture, , 228, , A .:ompetltIve Book of Agriculture
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•, , BER (blossom end rot) disease of tomato is due to: Ca, , deficiency, Tomato is day neutral and self pollinated plant, Basically warm season crop but may be grown in all, seasons., Seed rate:, • For normal:, 350-400 g/ha, • For hybrid:, 100-150 g/ha, Varieties:, • Pusa ruby:, Sioux x Improved Meeruti., • Pusa-120:, Nematode resistant, ✓, 1, , •, •, •, •, •, •, •, •, •, •, , Arka sourabh:, Pusa gaurav:, Arka vikash:, Hissar lalit:, Nematode resistant (RPSC, A0-09), Pusa sheetal: W inter season, SL -120:, Nematode resistant, Roma:, Suitable for transport and processing, Parker:, Fruit borer (H armigera) resistant, Punjab chhuhara and Roma: Suitable for processing., Flar savr: Delay ripening variety of tomato developed, through Biotechnology in 1994 by Calgene Company., I. Blight of tomato: bacterial disease., • It can be managed by use of Copper fungicides i.e. Copper, , oxychloride @ 3g/liter of water with Bacteromycin @ 0.1, g/liter of water or Mencozeb @ 3g/litre., 2. Leaf curl: virus, • Transmitted by white fly., Insect -pest:, 1. Fruit borer: Helicoverpa armigera., 2. White fly: Bemisia !abaci (transmitted leaf curl disease), 3. Serpentine leaf minor: Liriomyza trifoli., Physioloeical, disorders:, _, SN, , Disorder, Fruit cracking, , Character, Cracking in tomato fruits is, common, radial and concentric,, , Causes, Effect of soil moisture, and Boron deficiency, , cracking are severe, Horticulture, , 229, , A Competitive Book of Agriculture
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Club rot of cauliflower is due to: Plasmodiophora brassicae, Curd rot/soft rot of cole crops due to: Erwinia crotovera., White rust/white blister of cruciferus: Albugo candida, Self incompatibility is most common in: Cruciferae family, The characteristic flavour of cole crops is due to presence of:, Di methyl tri sulphite, , ./, •, •, .7, ./, , Insect -pest of cole crops:, 1. Diamond back moth (DBM): Plate/la xylostella, •, •, , It is serious pest of cabbage, , Larvae feed on leaves and later make galleries in, head/cabbage fruits, • DBM has developed the resistance against most of, insecticides, Management:, • Indian mustard which attract 80-90 % DBM used as trap, crop. (ARS-07), •, Alternative sprays of following pesticides:, • Spray of Quinolphos 35 EC @ 250 ml/ha, • Spray Cartap hydrochloride @ 500 g a.i/ha, • Spray Fenvalerate 20 EC @ 45 g a.i. /ha, Mustard saw fly: Athalia proxima lugens (only one pest from, order: Hymenoptera, F: Tenthredinidae), 3. Cabbage semi-looper: Plusia orichalcea (Noctuidae), , 2., , 5. Cabbage: Brassica oleracea var. capitata, India rank 31d in cabbage production., ✓, Cabbage has anticancer property due to presence of Indole3-carbinol., ✓, The incidence of club root of cabbage is 100% at pH 5.7, • Fruit of cabbage is known as: Head, ,7 Fruit type of cabbage: Siliqua., , ✓, , Seed rate:, •, , 500-750g of seed is required for one ha., , Varieties:, • Golden Acre, • Copenhagen Market (early variety)., • Pride of India (early and round variety), Horticulture, , 233, , A Competitive Book of Agriculture
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Hybrids:, • Pusa drumhead, •, •, •, •, , Pusa mukta, Pusa ratnar, Pusa red, Pusa sambandh, 6. Cauliflower: B. oleracea var. botrytis, , Blanching is done in cauliflower to protect curd from, attaining yellow colour after their direct exposer to sun and, to arrest enzymatic activity., •1 Fruit of cauliflower known as: Curd, • Three season varieties are available in: Cauliflower, ,7 Scooping: removal of central portion of curd for earlier, initiation of flower stalk in cauliflower, • Pusa himjyoti and Pusa snowball have self blanched habit., Seed rate: 450-700g seeds are sufficient for one ha., Early variety:, • Pusa early synthetic, • Early kunwari, • Pusa deepali, • Pusa katki, • Pusa sharad, Late variety:, •, Pusa snowball, •, Pusa himjyoti: Can be grown from April to July in the hills., Disorders of cauliflower: (RAS mains exam -2013), Character, Disorder, Causes, , S, N, , Blindness, , Buttoning, Hollow, Horticulture, , Plants having no terminal buds, and fail to form any curd, Development of small curds in, young plants, Excessive growing plants of, , 234, , Damage in early stage by, insects, low temp. &, , frost, Nitrogen deficiency, _, , Excessive use of, , A Competitive Book of Agriculture
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stem, (RAs pre-, , cauliflower develops hollow, , fertilizers especially, 'nitrogen', , stem and curd, , 2012), , Whiptail, , Chlorosis, Riceyness, , Browning, , Only midrib of leaf blade is, develops so the name', whiptaiP is given, lnterveinal, yellow mottling of, lower leaves, The surface of curd is loose, and has velvet appearance due, to formation of small white, flower buds at the curding, stage, Light brown to dark spots on, stem, brown colour of curd, 7., , •(, ./, ,7, •(, 11, •(, •7, 17, , •(, 1, ,7, , Mo deficiency in acidic, soils, Mg deficiency, Fluactuation of temp.,, Heavy application of N &, high humidity, , Boron deficiency, , Onion: Allium cepa, , Rich source of: Vitamin B., Pollination of onion chiefly by: Honey bees, Pungency in onion due to: Allyl propyl di sulphide., Onion is a cool season crop, The colour of outer skin of onion is due to: Quecertin., Onion is very useful in: Sun stroke., Bolting in onion/stem elongation due to: Low temperature, In onion & garlic: Purple blotch due to: Alternaria porii., Lassalgoan in Maharashtra is the biggest onion market in, , India., Cate chol is a phenolic factor present in onion has antifungal, property., In onion to check sprouting or germination during storage is, spraying MB @ 2500 ppm15-20 days after storage., Important pest of onion is thrips. It can be controlled by, spraying Acephate 1 ml/liter of water., , Seed rate:, • 10-12 kg Seeds/ha for nursery, •, , Or planting by bulbs: 750 kg medium sized bulb/ha, , Varieties:, Horticulture, , 235, , •, , A Competitive Book of Agriculture
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V Carrot is an annual crop for root production and biennial for, flowering and fruit set., • Kanji (beverage is prepared from black carrot), • Forking of carrot is due to: Hard pan of soil., Seed rate:, • 5-6 kg/ha of seeds is sufficient., Varieties:, • Pusa kesar: suitable for early sowing, • Pusa meghali: highest vitamin A, • Chantenay: for canning and storage, • Imperator: late maturity, • Ooty-1:, , •, •, •, •, •, •, ✓, , 9. Cucurbits:, Pusa vishwas is variety of: Pumpkin., Pusa chikni and Arka chandan are the variety of: Turai, (Sponge gourd), Biakner green, Dilpasand, Hisar selection -1, are the varieties, of: Tinda/Round gourd, Powdery mildew in cucurbits due to: Erysiphe, cichoracearum, Downey mildew in cucurbits due to: Pseudoperanospora, cubensis (RAS-6)., Yellow vine of cucurbits is due to: Serratia marcescens, Bud necrosis: mostly in water melon, viral, transmitted by, , seeds., Insect- pests of cucurbits:, 1. Red pumpkin beetle: Raphidopalpa foeicollis, • Both grub and adult beetle cause damage, the grub, damage the plants by boring in to roots and underground, stem., But beetle are very destructive to vegetable particularly, March -April when creepers are very young., Management:, A Competitive Book of Agriculture, Horticulture, 237, •
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•, , Apply Carbofuran 3 g @ 7.0 kg/ha or Methyl parathion, 2% dust @ 20 kg/ha., • Spray Malathion 50 EC @ 0.05 %., 2. Cucurbits fruit flies: Bactrocera cucurbitae, • Maggots feed pulp and seeds infested fruits may fall, prematurely & fruit become soft and rotten., • It can be controlled by bait spray containing 50 ml of, Malathion 35 EC and 0.5 kg Gur/molasses in 50 liters of, water for one ha., 3. Cucurbit mite: Tetranychus cucurbitae, • Known as red spider mite, • Suck cell sap by making webbing on underside of leaves, • Damage confined to under surface of leaves, • It controlled by Dicofol/ Ethion 50 EC @ 1.5 ml/liter, 10. Cucumber: Cucumis sativus, ,(, ,(, ••(, , •, ,f, , ANON, , Known as `kheera', Sex form of cucumber is : Monoecious, Pillow disease of cucumber is due to: Calcium deficiency., Vector of cucumber mosaic virus is:, Aphid, , Seed rate: 2.5 kg/ha, Varieties:, •, Pusa sanyog (gynoecious variety), •, Japanese long green, •, Pinesett, •, Balaam kheera, , 1, , 11. Water melon: Citrullus lanatus, ✓, V, ✓, ✓, , Water melon fruit contains: 92-95 % water. (RAS-09), Metallic sound at the time of harvesting shows: immaturity., Heavy dull sound at the time of harvesting shows: MaturiV.,, The drying of tendril at the base of the fruit is also a sign of, , ✓, , maturity, Bud necrosis in watermelon is due to: Aphids (Aphis, craccivora), Hortic ulture, , A Competitive Book of Agriculture, , 238, , ..., , ... •, , ^:Eit.itVOtars*,fr,, , 1
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•, •, •, •, s/, ✓, , Flower crop covering maximum area in India: Jasmine, Hogarth course is also known as: Line of beauty., Book 'Beautiful Gardens' is written by: M.S Randhawa., HP B.P. Pal and Priyadrashani are varieties of: Rose, Japanese flower arrangement is known as: Ikebana. (R4S-06), India is the largest producer of loose flower in the world, , Famous gardens:, Garden, , Place, , •, , Mughal garden:, , Pinjore, Haryana, , •, , Rose garden:, , Chandigarh, , •, , Mandhor garden:, , Jodhpur., , •, , Buddha Jayanti Park:, , New Delhi, , •, , Brindavan garden:, , Mysore(Biggest formal garden), , •, , National botanical garden: Lukhnow, , Style of gardening:, 1. Formal style:, • Plan is symmetrical, ✓, E.g. Mughal gardens, Persian gardens, Pinjore garden, 2. Informal style:, ✓, Plan is asymmetrical:, ✓, It reflects naturalistic effect of total view and represents, natural beauty, ✓, E.g. Japanese garden, English garden, 3. Freestyle:, 1 Combination of both formal and informal style., 1 E.g. Rose garden of Ludhiana/Chandigarh, English garden., , Main features of garden, 1. Mughal garden:, 1 Terraces, • Running water, 1 Baradari, • High protecting wall, 1 Terminal building, 2. Japanese garden: features, Horticulture, , 242, , A Competitive Book of Agriculture
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Garden lanterns, , ./, ✓, , Garden pagoda, •, Dry landscape, •, Wells, 1 E.g. Buddha jayanti park, New Delhi, 3. English garden:, .7 Herbaceous border, 1 Cottage garden, 1 Lawn, 1 Rockery (RAS-09), 1 E.g. Persian garden, Rastrapati garden, Tea garden, Lawn:, 1, Regarded as heart of garden, 1 No garden is complete without lawn, 1, Planting of grass in lawn by turf method, 1 It is best and quickest method for planting of lawn, In this method used turf -piece of earth with grasses, Flower crops:, 1. Rose: Rosa spp. (Rosaceae), V Origin place of rose:, India., '1 Rose known as:, Queen of flowers, 1 Rose is:, Symbol of beauty, 1 National flower of:, England, 1 Best time of planting:, September -October., 1 Commercial method of propagation: T -budding., 1 Best time of budding:, Nov. to Feb., 1 Fruit of rose:, Rose hips., 1 Dr. BP Pal related to:, Rose breeding., 1 Gulkand is prepared by mixing: Petals and sugar in 1:1 ratio, (RAS-09)., White flower variety of rose is: Tushar. (RAS-09), Red flower variety of rose is: Crimson Glory., Thorn less variety of rose:, Pusa mohit, Suchitra, To increase shelf life of flower: Pulsing treatment is done., 2. Gladiolus: Gladiolus hybridus, ✓, Family:, Iridaceae, ✓, Propagation by:, Corms/tissue culture, ,4, •, 1, 1, , Hortic ulture, , 243, , A Competitive Book of Agriculture
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Varieties:, •, Priyadrashani, Happy end, • Suchitra, Freindship, 3. Chrysanthemum: Dendranthema gradiflora (Compopsiteae), s/ Common name `Guldaudi', Origin: China., Propagation: root suckers., Varieties:, • Diana, Basanti, • Ralchi, Birbal sahani, • Indira, Red gold, '7, ,7, , Principle of preservation:, Canning:, • Fruits can be processed at a temperature of 100 °C., • Vegetable can be processed at temperature of 115-121 °C., 2. Pasteurization:, • Heating of fruits and vegetable juice at 85-90 °C for 30, minutes., • It kills only harmful microbes., 3. Sterilization:, • Heating of fruits and vegetables above 100 °C, • It kills both beneficial and harmful bacteria., 4. Freezing:, • Cooler storage: 15 °C, • Refrigeration or chilling: 0-5 °C, 5. Cry preservation: Preserve in liquid nitrogen at -196 °C., 6. Drying: Removal of moisture by applying heat is called drYing, e.g. Raisins (Kismis)., 7. Preservation through osmosis:, • High concentration of sugar: e.g. Jam (68 % sugar), Agli, ka petha., , 1., , •, , Salt preservation: Salt conc. 10-25 % is sufficient (in, pickles: 15%)., 8. Preservation by chemicals:, a. KMS (Potassium Meta bi Sulphite): @ 500 ppm/0.05%., Horticulture, , 244, , A Competitive Book of Agriculture
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•, , Sulphur di oxide is responsible for preservation., • It used against colour less fruit Juices/pulp., b. Sodium benzoate: @ 700 ppm/0.07%., •, Benzoic acid is responsible for preservation., • Used in colored fruit (only in non acid fruits)., 9. Fermentation: grape wine (alcohol 7-20%) is oldest example of, fermented beverage., 10. Asepsis: prevent entry of microbes., 11. Oxidation can be checked by antioxidants (Ascorbic acid /vit. C), 12. Checking of enzymatic spoiling: Blanching in cauliflower, , Difference between Jam and Jelly:, SN, Jam, 1, , Jelly, Used firmed and mature fruits, , Ripe and thick flaccid fruits are, used., , 2, , Pectin is not important., , Pectin, Pectin, , is necessary (0.5-1.0%), tested, by:, Alcohol,, , Jelmeter, Sheet test, 3, , It is opaque, , This is transparent, , 4, , Sugar is added according to, acid content (68.5% sugar), , Sugar is added according to, pectin content (generally 60-65%), , 5, , Prepared from mixing of fruits, , Fruit don't mixed, Eg. Guava, apple, , eg. apple, papaya, tomato,, strawberry, , 6, , 7, , ' Temperature: 219-221 °F, , End point 221-222 °F7105.5 °C, , —TSS: 68.5%, , TSS: 70 %, , Acid should be: 0.5-0.6%, , -, , Fruit acid should be: 1.0%, , Difference between squash and cordial:, Cordial, SN Squash, , Horticulture, , 245, , A Competitive Book of Agriculture
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I, , Strained juice containing, moderate quantity of fruit pulp, with concentrate sugar and, water, , Cordial is made by Clear sweetest, juice of fruit pulp, , E.g. Mango, pine apple, lemon, squash., , It contains fruit juice 25%, , Difference between Squash and Sarbat:, SN I Squash, 1, , Sarbat, , 2, , it contains fruit juice, sugar and, water, TSS: 40%, , Clear sugar syrup with artificial, flavor, TSS: 70%, , 3, , Mango, pine apple Squash, , E.g. Almond, Khus-khus Sarbat, , Difference between preserve and candy:, SN Preserve, Candy, , 2, , Preserve made from natural, fruits by cocking whole or cut., , A fruit cover with sugar and, glucose, subsequently grind and, dried., , In heavy sugar syrup it is, becomes tender transparent e.g., Aonla murrabba., , E.g. Agra ka petha., , Terminology:, Bonsai:, •, Japanese art of growing miniature trees and shrubs by, extreme dwarfing, Topiary:, • It is an art of training plants in to different shape i.e. shape, of animals, birds etc. Plants used in topiary are evergreen. i.e, Duranta, Minya panniculata., Edge:, , Hortic ulture, , 246, , A Competitive Book of Agriculture
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•, , When low growing perennial, annual plants are grown on the, border of plots, beds are called edge. Alternanthera,, Sunrose, Hedges:, • When shrubs are planted on boundary for fencing. It may be, ornamental or protective. Karonda, Bougainvillea,, Mehndi, Hibiscus, Clerodendron and Lantana are the best, example of hedge., Fruit preservation:, • The art and science of keeping fruits for longer time without, detonation in quality., , A Competitive Book of Agriculture, Hortkulture, , 247, , 4
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6. ENTOMOLO6Y, Important points:, 1 NPV is mostly used to control: Lepidopteran insects, Bud necrosis in groundnut is transmitted by: Thrips, I Binomial nomenclature was first given by: C. Linnaeus, 1 The scientific name of maize stem borer is: Chilo partellus, V Termite control can also be done by: Irrigation, • The chief excretory organ in insect is: Malpighian tubules, I Juvenile hormone secreted by: Corpora allaia, I Tree banding is useful for control of: Mango mealy bug, , (NET.., , 2013), •, I, I, , •, I, 1, I, 1, I, 1, 1, I, I, 1, •, , The main characteristic feature of an insect is: Three pairs of, legs, Which is the best suitable species for bee culture: Apis mellifera, What is optimum plant population for Bt — cotton?: 10,000, plants/ha, Largest size of the honey bee is: Apis dorsata, Bromadiolone (0.005 %) is an effetive: Rodenticide, Bacteria is produced at commerical level for pest: Bacillus, thuringiensis, House fly spread the disease: Cholera, The safe insecticide for vegetable is:Malathion, The most widely used pheromone is: Sex pheromone (female), Major pest of cucurbits is: Pumpkin beetle, Diamond back moth is a peat of: Crucifers, The bollgard is: Transgenic cotton, The most suitable fumigant for quarantine purpose is: Methyle, bromide, The most effective moulting hormone in insects is: Ecdysone, The major excretory product of insects are: Uric acid, Nosema disease of honeybees is caused by a protozoa:, Nosema apis, , •, , Silver shoot and onion leaf in rice is caused by gall midge:, Orseolia oryzae, Entomology, , 248, , A Competitive Book of Aglialltuit, , AL
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Bud necrosis in watermelon and muskmelon is transmitted by:, Aphids, Insect can survive at higher temperature and low humidity is:, , Khapra beetle (T. granarium), Protein hydrolysate is used as an attractant for the control of:, Fruitfly, Aphelinus mall has been a successful parasitoid in, controlling: Apple wooly aphis (NET -2013), Rodolia cardinalis has been successful predator in, controlling: Cottony cushion scale, The infestation of which insect starts from the field:, , I, I, , Angountois grain moth, If a pest is confined to a particular area and occurs regularly,, its infestation is termed as: Endemic, The toxin produced by Bacillus thuringiensis interferes with, the insect's: Digestive system, The headquarters of Directorate of Plant Protection,, Quarantine and Storage is located at: Faridabad, Haryana, Epiricania melanoleuca is a lepidopteron parasitoid effective, against: Sugarcane pyrilla, Enforcement of laws for the control of insect pests in India is, governed by: Destructive Insects and Pests Act (1914), Rice stem borer (Scirpophaga incertulus) is absolute/, , monophagus pest of rice, Vector of rice `Tungro' is Green Leaf Hopper (Nephoteitix, virscence), , Vector of rice 'Grassy stunt' disease is Brown Plant Hopper, (Nilaparvata lugens)., Chaffy grains with black spot in rice are due to Gundhi bug, (Leptocorisa acuta), In rice gundhi bug cause damage on the stage: Milky stage, Serious pest of wheat is: Termite, Wheat stem borer (Sesamia inferens) attack in: Night, Specific pest of wheat nursery is: Ghujhia weevil (Tenymecus, indicus)(ARS-07), Entomology, , 249, , A Competitive Book of Agriculture
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Control of tundu disease: Hot water treatment 50 °C for 2 hrs., 'Hopper burn' symptoms in rice due to: BPH (Nilaparvata, , I, •, , ✓, , lugens), Vector of cotton leaf curl virus: White fly (Bemisia tabact), Flaring of squares in cotton is due to: Spotted bollworm (Earias, vile/la), Resetting of cotton flowers due to: Pink boll worm (Pectinophora, gossypiella), Double seed formation in cotton bolls is due to: pink boll worm, (Pectinophora gossypiella)., Large circular bore holes with faecal pellets on bolls is the, symptoms of: American boll worm (Helicoverpa armigera), Safest insecticides for honey bee: Endosulfan, , ✓, , Pest population should be kept below: Economic Threshold Level, , •, •, ✓, 1, •, , (ETL)., ✓, , The appropriate time for insecticides application to control, , ✓, ✓, ✓, , damaging pests: ETL (NET -2013), The pest which attacks all the parts of the plant is: Termite., White grubs prefer to lay eggs on: Sandy or sandy loam soils., Pest which has a status of 'International pest' is: Desert locust, , (Schistacera gregarea), ✓, ✓, ✓, , Recently method of control of bollworm is: Bt. Transgenic, , plants., Number of eggs /second lay by termite: One egg/sec., The insects are poikilothermic i.e. they have no precise, mechanism for regulating the body temperature so also called, cold blooded organisms., V The total heat required for the completion of physiological, processes in the life -history of a species is considered as constant, a thermal constant (ARS-04)., ✓, Control of weeds by biological agent known as: Parabiological, control.(IARI, Ph.D-09), 1 International Institute of Biological Control in West Indies, 1927, • International Organization for Biological Control: Zuriec,, , Switerzerland., Entomology, , 250, , A Competitive Book of Agriculture
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✓, , Cryptobiosis: a phenomenon when insect become quiescent due, to adverse climatic condition and show no visible sign of, metabolic activity, Lininetic zone: The open water zone to the depth of effective, light penetration., Wax moth (Galleria melonella) most serious pest of apiculture., , •, , (JRF-03), Cubicula: Hind legs of honey bees also Known as auricle., , ✓, , The word entomology derived from Greek words:, •, •, , Entomo =, Insect, Logos, Discourse, Classification:, A. Phylum: Arthropoda, • Arthropoda is a Greek word means segmented legs., Class:, • Mainly two classes of insect -pest that is agricultural, importance are below:, 1., , Class: Hexapoda/Insecta, •, •, , Body is divided into three viz, head, thorax and abdomen., Eg. Insects are 97% of total population of the phylum, arthropod., , What is insect:, • The insects are tracheate arthropods in which the body is, divided in to head, thorax and abdomen., • A single pair of antennae is present and the head bears a pair, of mandibles and two pairs of maxillae, the second pair, fused medially to form the labium., • The thorax carries three pairs of legs and usually one or two, pairs of wings., • The abdomen is devoid of ambulatory appendages and the, •, , genital opening is situated near the posterior end of the body., Postembryonic, developments, rarely, direct, and, , •, , metamorphosis usually occurs., The widely accepted classification of insects was given by, , the taxonomist: A.D Imms., 251, Entomology, , A Competitive Book of Agriculture
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c., , Grub: Coleopteran, and hymenoptera, , d. Maggot: Diptera (all true flies), Types of mouth parts:, •, , Biting and Chewing type: Grasshoppers, locust, beetles,, larval Lepidoptera, • Piercing and sucking type: Mosquito, aphids, bugs,, leafhoppers, • Sponging type: House fly, • Siphoning type: Butterfly, moths, • Chewing and lapping type: Honey bee, •, Rasping and sucking type: Thrips, Economic decision levels for pest population concepts of, threshold are:, a. Damage Boundary (DB):, • Where loss can be recognized., b. Economic Threshold Level (ETL):, • The pest density at which control measures should be, applied to prevent an increasing pest population from, reaching the economic injury level., • It is also referred as 'Action Threshold Level'., c. Economic Injury Level (EIL):, • The lowest population density of the pest that will cause, economic damage., • It is also known as 'Damage Threshold Level(DTL)., d. General Equilibrium Position (GEP):, • , GEP is the average population density of an insect, , c, , population over a long period of time, unaffected by the, temporary, interventions of pest control., Chronology of entomology:, 1951:, , R.H. Painter coined the term 'Resistance' and published his, , 1962:, , book 'Insect Resistance in Crop Plants'. He has known as, 'father of host plant resistance'., Publication of the book "Silent spring - by Rachel Carson, , Entomology, , 254, , A Competitive Book of Agriculture, , d,
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Publication of the book 'Biological Control of Insect Pest, and Weeds' by Paul de bach., 1973: Development of first photostable pyrethroid "Permethrin"., 1964:, , 1975: Elear (Helicoverpa NPV) registered for control of bollworm, , & tobacco bud worm on Cotton., 1987: Development of first transgenic plant reported by M. Vaeck, and co-workers of 'Belgian biotechnology company' plant, genetic system by transferring B.1 (endotoxin) gene to, tobacco for the control of Manduca seva., 1988: NC -IPM: National Center for Integrated Pest Management,, New Delhi., What is a pest?, • An insect or any living being whose population increase to, such an extent as to cause economic losses to crop or a, nuisance and health hazard to man and his livestock will be, declared as a pest eg. Insects, rats, mites, weeds etc. (NET -2013), Categories of pests:, a. Key pest:, • These are most severe and damaging pest., • GEP lies well above the DB and EIL., • E.g. Cotton boll worm, DBM, gram pod borer., b. Major pest:, • GEP is close to EIL but economically damage avoided by, •, , timely intervations., Sucking pests of cotton and rice., , c. Minor pest:, • GEP lies below EIL and Damage boundary., • Under favorable environmental condition the population may, cross EIL and DB for a short interval and a single application, of insecticides is usually enough to prevent damage., • E.g. Thrips, mites and sugar cane mealy bug., Regular pest:, • Affect specific seasonal crops like cereals, pulses, fruits,, passes through many generations during the crop period., ", , E.g. rice stem borer, , Entomology, , 255, , A Competitive Book of Agriculture
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e., , f., , Sporadic pest:, • Population of these insect is usually negligible but in certain, year under favorable environmental condition they appear, epidemic and crossing many times over EIL and DB., • Required suitable cultural tactics to reduce population of, these pests., • White grub, hairy caterpillar, cut worm, grass hopper., Potential pest:, • These insects are presently not causing any economic, damage., • Therefore as such should not be labeled as pests., • The GEP lies below the DB and doesn't cross EIL even under, favorable conditions., • But any change in ecosystem may push their GEP higher and, there is a danger of economic damage from these pests if, , •, •, IPM:, •, , control operations against the other categories of pests are, under taken in an indiscriminate manner., Spodoptera litura on cotton/Soyabean., Army worm on wheat are example of potential pest., IPM is a broad ecological approach that minimizes pest, , population below ELL through utilizing most of or all the, suitable techniques like cultural, physical, mechanical,, biological & chemical methods in a compatible manner., Components of IPM or common methods of pest management:, 1. Cultural methods: (it includes certain cultural practices viz.), a. Crop rotation:, ✓, Effective against limited host range and relatively, immobile in some stages of their development., b. Deep ploughing:, ✓ The resting stages of soil dwelling insects, weeds and, pathogen are destroyed by summer deep ploughing, c. Clean cultivation:, ✓, Field sanitation and destroy plant debris of previous crop, d. Use of trap crop:, Entomology, , 256, , A Competitive Book of Agrkulture
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✓, , Grow trap crops around the main crop to attract the pest, of main crop and then easily destroyed through spraying, any effective pesticides., , ./, , E.g. sowing okra in cotton crop as a trap crop for boll, , worms, castor in soyabean for spodoptera and mustard in, cabbage for DBM., e. Pruning and thinning:, • Infected parts should be pruned out., ✓ Thinning also increase the vigour of plants., f. Growing resistant plant varieties: (NET -2013), ✓, E.g. In rice,CoRH-1: BPH and gall midge resistant, • Suraksha: gall midge resistance, 2. Mechanical method:, a. Hand picking:, ✓, Large sized insects i.e. caterpillars, bugs, and beetles are, hand picked and destroyed., b. Shaking and beating of branches:, • Done by hands or mechanically to drop larvae & eggs of, insects from plants., c. Banding:, • Prevent climbing pests e.g. mango mealy bug, d. Wire gauge screen:, • Protects fruits from borer, e. Trench digging:, ✓ Against nymphs of locust and larvae of red hairy, caterpillar, f. Trapping:, ✓ Various type traps are used eg. light trap, bait trap, sticky, trap, pheromone trap and sound trap etc., , g. Flooding and draining:, •, , To destroy soil dwelling insects., , 3. Physical method:, ✓, Involve manipulation of temperature, humidity & use of, , radiations., Flame throwers against grass hoppers, A Competitive Book of Agriculture, 257, Entomology
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✓, •, ✓, , drying of grains at minimum moisture level to reduce, storage pests infestation., e.g.in cereals should be kept at moisture level < 12 % for, safe storage., In oil seeds moisture level should be at least 8 % for safe, , storage, 4. Legal control:, I Adopted various quarantine measures at various frontier, area of country., , / Domestic quarantine also adopted for some insect -pests., 5. BioloEical control:, Definition:, • The utilization of parasitoids, predators and pathogens for the, regulation of host population density is called as biological, control., a. Parasitoid:, • A parasitoid is a special kind of parasite which is often about, , the same size as its host, kills its host and requires only one, host for developing into a free living adult., Examples of some parasitoids:, •, •, , Egg parasitoid: Trichogramma spp., Larval parasitoid: Campoletis chloridae, Cotesia spp.,, , •, , Bracon hebetor etc., Majority of parasitoids utilized in biological control of insect, pest belong to two orders namely Hymenoptera, (Chalcidoidea, Ichneumonoidea and Proctotrupoidea) and, , Diptera (Tachnid flies)., b. Predator:, • Predator is a free living organism throughout life and usually, larger in size, kill their prey and require more than one pray, , for developing free living adult., E.g. Lady Bird Beetle (Coccinella septumpuctata), lace wing, (Chrysoperla carnea), syrphid fly etc., Classical control:, •, , Entomology, , 258, , A Competitive Book of Agriculture
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•, , The searching, importing, colonizing and dispersal of a, , natural enemy in to an area where they don't already exist for, the suppression of pest population., c. Microbial control: stern hauns, 1949., • The control of pests by the use of micro organisms such as, , viruses, bacteria, protozoa, fungi, rickettsia and nematode or, their by products are known as microbial control., • Father of insect pathology: Agastino bassi., Symptoms of virus and bacteria infested larvae:, Virus infested, Infested larvae stop feeding, the larvae turn into pinkish, white in ventral side because, , SN, 1, 2, , Bacteria infested, Larvae reduce feeding, Body become dark or black, in colour and reduce its, of accumulation of polyhedral activity, bodies, 3, Larvae become flaccid and Fluid discharge from anus, skin become fragile & finally and mouth and septicemia, (blood poisoning) occurs., ruptures., system, disLarval crawls top of plant & Nervous, 4, hang upside down by prologs, coordinated and finally, this symptoms known as tree death of larvae., top disease, Advantages of biological control:, • It's environmentally safe and non hazardous to men and, •, •, , domestic animals., , Supplement the natural balance., Long lasted control, may establish slowly but once, establishment gives permanent control, • Economical: initiate cost may be high., • Self perpetuate and permanent., Disadvantages:, • Slow control and not guaranteed result., • Research intensive & require large budget., • Less efficient compare to chemical and mechanical control., Entomology, , 259, , A Competitive Book of Agriculture
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•, , Imidacloprid, Confidor, Toxicity (in order) of insecticides:, • Phorate > Dimeton > Parathion > Aldicarb, Safer (selective) order of insecticides:, • Methoprene > Permethrin > Methoxychlor > Malathion, MRL: Maximum residues limit: (ARS/NET-10), • It is the optimum safe concentration of the left over, pesticides or its degradation products., • Expressed in mg/kg body weight., Propesticides:, • It is a pesticidally active material or compound which in its, original form is inactive and is transformed into an active, •, , state by a plant, animal or microorganism., Eg. Acephate, Cartap hydrochloride., , Plant protection equipments:, a., , Dusters:, • It consists essentially of a fan or blower and a type of, •, •, , container named 'hopper'., To produce air blasts is the basic principle of duster., The efficiency of dusting is ten times more than that of, spraying but the average job of spray is equivalent to very, good dusting, , b. Sprayers:, • Sprayers are the most commonly used in the pesticides, application., • Spray, Size (in micron/Ft), Coarse spray, 400 or more, Fine spray, 100-400, Mist, 50-150 (NET -2013), Fog, 1-50, Smoke, 0.001-0.1, IPM Modules for Rice:, Pest, ETL, Hispa, 1-2 adult/hill, BPH, 5-10 hopper/hill, Entomology, , 262, , A Competitive Book of Agriculture
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•, , Avoiding use of excess nitrogen which increases population, of Brown plant hopper (BPH) and leaf folder., • Alternate wetting & drying for BPH., • Avoided close planting in case of BPH epidemic area., • Passing the rope on the crop and draining of water for case, worm., • Using the light traps to monitor BPH, Green plant hopper and, stem borer., • Clipping of seedling tips for rice hispa, thrips & yellow, stem borer, • Use of NSICE (Neem seed kernel extract) 50% or Neem oil, for ear head bug., IPM Modules for cotton:, • ETL values of different pest of cotton., Pest, ETL, Leaf hopper, 1-2/leaf, White flies, 5-10/leaf for adult or 20 nymphs/leaf, Boll worms, 10% shoots/bolls damaged, Stem weevil, 10% infested plants, Spodoptera, 8 egg masses/100 m row, • Use light trap for hoppers, Spodoptera & bollworms, • Use pheromone trap for monitoring and destruction, • Collection and destruction of plant parts & infected bolls., • Use of Natural enemies of cotton pest i.e. Chrysoperla, cornea, Trichogramma spp., Insect- pests of major field crops:, Rice crop pests:, , 1. Yellow stem borer: Tryporyza/ScirPophaga incertulus., • Family: Pyralidae (Lepidoptera), • Monophagus/absolute pest of rice., •, , Full grown larvae hibernate in rice stubbles., , •, •, ", , It pupates inside the plant., Full grown larvae measures about 20 mm., adults are dirty white or greenish yellow front wings., , Symptoms of damage:, Entomology, , 263, , A Competitive Book of Agriculture
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•, , Caterpillar alone is destructive, construct an emergence, , hole which always located above the water level., • Caterpillar produce dead hearts on affected plants., • Plants that is attacked in early stages produce ears devoid of, grains and are known as" white ear"., •, Basmati varieties suffer heavy damage then coarse varieties., Management:, • Removal & destruction of crop stubbles., • Since eggs of stem borer are laid near tip of leaf hence,, clipping and burning of tips of the seedling as a routine, before transplanting., •, Application of Cartap hydrochloride 4G @ 2.5 kg a.i. /ha., 2. Rice hispa: Diclodispa armigera, •, F. Chrysomelidae, Coleoptera, •, Serious pest of rice., • Small bluish black beetle, recognized by numerous short, spines on the body which gives a characteristic appearance., Symptoms:, • Damage is done by larvae as leaf minors, produce, transparent blotches on the leaf surface., • The adult also feed on green matter and produce parallel, whitish streaks on leaves, • Severely infected leaves dry up and present a white dried up, appearance in the field., Management:, • Nursery beds are flooded; the floated beetles are collected by, nets and killed., • Clip off the leaf tips before transplanting seedlings to kill the, eggs., • Chlorpyriphos @ 625 ml spray with 250 liters of water., • Larval parasitoid of hispa is: Eulophus femoralis., 3. Rice gundhi bug: Leptocorisa acuta, • F. Coreidae: Hemiptera, • Periodic pest of rice, • Adult bugs have long legs and are slender about 20 mm long., Entomology, , 264, , A Competitive Book of Agriculture
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Symptoms of damage:, •, , Rice field severely attacked by this pest emit a repugnant, , smell which gives to this pest the name "gundhi bug"., • The nymphs and adults suck juice from developing grains in, the milky stage, causing incompletely filled panicles or, panicles with empty grains., • Black and brown spots are appearing around the holes made, by the bugs on which a sooty mould may develop., • This pest attacks the rice crop periodically., Management:, • Clean cultivation: Paddy field and surrounding bunds should, be kept clean from weeds., • Adult bugs captured through light traps and destroyed., • Hand collection of bugs, • Resistant variety: Grow Badshabhog variety., • Spray Malathion 50 EC @ 675 ml/ha, 4. Brown plant hopper: Nilaparvata lugens, • F. Delphacidae: Hemiptera, •, , Serious pest of high yielding varieties of paddy., , Symptoms:, • Both nymph & adult cause damage by sucking cell sap from, leaves which turn yellow., •, , •, , Under the favorable condition of high humidity, high nitrogen, application and no wind, the population increase and "hopper, burn" is obtained in various localities., It transmitted the "grassy stunt" virus disease of rice., , Management:, • Closer spacing should be avoided (follow a spacing of 20 x, •, •, , 15 cm)., Alternate drying & wetting of field., Alley 30 cm wide after every 3 m of rice planting provide, , •, , proper aeration to crop, Spray of 100 ml Imidaeloprid (200 SL) with 250 liters of, , •, , water., , Multi gene resistant varieties: IR-36, IR-60., , Entom ology, , 265, , A Competitive Book of Agriculture
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5. Rice case worm: Nymphula depunctalis, • F. Pyralidae: Lepidoptera, • The larvae are light green with a light brownish orange, head., , •, , The presence of filamentous gills on the sides of body of the, larvae is helpful for its semi aquatic life as it derives its 02, requirement from the water found inside the leaf case., Symptoms:, • Tubular case is constructed by the larvae., • Larvae feed by scrapping the under surface of the leaf blade, leaving the upper epidermis intact., Management:, • A rope may be passed to over the young crop for dislodging, the larval cases., • Put filter barrier between irrigation channels of different, field., Other pests of rice:, a. Green leaf hopper: Nephotettex nigropictus/virescens., •, Hemiptera: F. Cicadelidae, •, This is responsible for vector of virus diseases, of which, Tungro is most serious., b. White backed plant hopper: Sogatella furcifera, • F. Delphacidae: Hemiptera, •, Cause rust red symptoms, c. Rice gall midge: Orseolia oryzae, •, F. Cecidomyiidae: Diptera, • Cause "silver shoot & onion leaves" symptoms., d. Rice thrips: Stenochaelothrips biformis, •, F. Thripidae: Thysanoptera, •, Important pest of rice nursery (JRF-09), e. Rice grass hopper: Hieroglyph us banian, •, F. Acrididae: Orthoptera, •, Damage by nibbling of rice ear head, Insect -Pest of cotton:, I. Cotton jassid: Amrasca biguttula, Cicadelidae: Hemiptera., Entomology, , 266, , A Competitive Book of Agriculture
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•, , Destructive pest of American cotton, • Nymphs are wedge shaped and adults are winged form., Symptoms:, • Adult and nymph cause injury to crop is due to loss of sap, and probably also due to the injection of toxins., • Yellowing and downward rolling/cupping of leaves due to, toxins., 2. Cotton whitefly: Bemisia tabaci, Aleyrodidae: Hemiptera, • The pale yellow body is slightly dusted with a white waxy, powder., • They have two pairs of pure white wings and have, prominent long hind wings., Symptoms: damage done by two types., a. The vitality of the plants is lowered through the loss of cell sap., b. The normal photosynthesis is interfered with due to the growth, of a sooty mould on the honey dew excreted by the insects., I It transmit a number of viral disease including the leaf curl, disease of tobacco, vein curling disease of okra and leaf curl, of sesame., Management:, I Both jassids and whiteflies can be effectively managed by, spraying of Imidacloprid 200 SL @ 75 g a.i. /ha or, Thiomethoxam @ 45 g a.i. /ha., I Spray of Dimethoate @ 1 ml/liter of water, 3. Pink boll worm: Pectinophora gossypiella, Gelechidae:, Lepidoptera, • Most destructive pest of cotton., • The caterpillars are pink in colour and found inside the, flower buds, panicles and the bolls of cotton., Symptoms:, • Damage done by caterpillar in various ways there is excessive, shedding of the fruiting bodies., • "Rosette flower" is characteristic symptoms. (IARI, Ph. D-09), , Entomology, , 267, , A Competitive Book of Agriculture
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•, , The total shedding is caused by all the boll worms, , collectively one half may be due to the attack of pink boll, •, , worm., Double seed formation: The two adjoining seed are joining, , together within damaged boll by pink boll worm., Management:, • Growing of Bt. cotton varieties is the effective method for, boll worm complex., • Destruction of cotton sprouts, alternative host plants or, burning of the plant debris., • Deep ploughing (with furrow turning plough) done by the end, of February., • Larval: Parasitoid Bracon greeni, Chelonus pectinophorae., 4. Spotted boll worm: Earias insulenalvitella, Noctuidae:, Lepidoptera., • It is serious pest of cotton and okra., • A series of longitudinally black spots on the body with dull, green colour and having tiny stout bristles are the main, identification mark of spotted boll worm., Symptoms:, • Cause heavy shedding of fruiting bodies., • 'Flare square' (Flare-up) is characteristic symptoms. (JRF-07), • In the attacked bolls the lint is spoiled by larval feeding., • The infected bolls open prematurely and produce poor lint, resulting in lower market values., Other pests of cotton:, a. Dusky cotton bug: Oxycarenus laetus, Lycaenidae: Hemiptera., b. Red cotton, bug: Dysdercus singulatus, Pyrrhocoridae:, Hemiptera. Red cotton bug stain the lint in ginning factories, when it crushed with cotton., c. American boll worm: Helicoverpa armigera, Noctuidae:, Lepidoptera., d. Cotton leaf roller: Sylepta derogata, Pyralidae: Lepidoptera., Insect -pests of sugarcane:, 1. Top borer: Tryporhyza/Scirpophaga novella, Pyra I idae:, Entomology, , 268, , A Competitive Book of Agriculture
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Lepidoptera., •, , Caterpillar are creamy white or sluggish and the moths are, pure white in colour., , Symptoms:, • Young plants attacked by caterpillars show characteristic, , reddish streaks on the mid rib., • They show a number of shoot holes in leaves which, ultimately cause dead hearts., • After cane formation it attacks the terminal portion of canes, causing "bunchy tops"., Management:, • Collect and destroy moths and egg clusters., • Cut the attacked shoots at ground level from April to June., • Application of Carbofuran 3G @ 25 kg/ha or Cartap, hydrochloride 4G @ 25 kg/ha in July., 2. Sugar cane leafhopper: Pyrilla perpusilla, Lophopidae: Hemiptera., • Jet like body pasture., • The leaf hoppers are very agile and jumps around in large, numbers making a patient noise when a person walks, through heavily infested field., Symptoms:, • Owing to the loss of cell sap the leaves turn pale yellow and, shrivel up later., • Leaf hoppers secrete a thick transparent liquid known as, honey dew on which black mould is developed., • Leaves acquire a sickly black appearance and the attacked, crop can be spoiled from a distance., Management:, • Spray Malathion 50 EC @ 1 liter/ha., • Egg parasitoid: Epiricania melanoleuca (single parasitoid, belonging to order Lepidoptera)., Other pests of sugarcane:, a. Sugar cane white fly: Aleurobolus barodensis, Aleyrodidae:, Hemiptera, (Only nymphs cause damage by sucking cell sap,, Entomology, , 269, , A Competitive Book of Agriculture
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yellowing streaks appears on the attacked leaves and a crop, acquires a polish green appearance)., b. Sugar, cane, mealy, bug:, Saccharicoccus, sacchari,, Pseudococcidae, Hemiptera, c. Sugar cane shoot borer: Chilo infuscatellus, Pyralidae:, Lepidoptera., d. Gurdaspur borer: Acigona steinella, Pyralidae: Lepidoptera., e. Sugar cane intemodes borer: Chilo sacchariphagus indicus,, Pyralidie, Lepidoptera., f. Sugar cane scale insect: Melonapsis glomerats., Insect -pest of wheat:, 1. Army worm of wheat: Mythimna separata, Noctuidae:, Lepidoptera., • The freshly emerged larvae spin threads from which they, suspend themselves in the air and then with the help of air, current reach from one plant to another, • Early stage feeds on tender leaves in to central whorl of the, plants but later caterpillars are able to feed on older leaves, and skelerotized them totally, •, , In case of severe attack by the army worm whole leaves, including the mid ribs are consumed and the field looks as, , "grazed by the cattle"., Spray Quinolphos 25 EC @ 500 ml/ha., 2. Ghujhia weevil: Tanymecus indicus, Curculionidae: Coleoptera., • It is specific pest of wheat nursery. (ARS-07), • Damage caused by adult weevil only., • They cut the germinating seedlings at the ground level., • Mainly damage is done in the months of October, •, , November., Other pests of wheat:, a. Termite: Odontotermes obesus, Termitidae: lsoptera., b. Wheat aphid: Macrosi,phum miscanthi, Aphididae: Hemiptera., C. Wheat mite: Petrobia la/ens, Acarina. (ARS-05), , Entomology, , 270, , A Competitive Book of Agriculture
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1nsect-pests of maize:, 1, Maize/ Sorghum stem borer: Chilo partellus, Pyralidae:, Lepidoptera., • Most destructive pest of maize/sorghum., • Caterpillars infect the crop usually one month after sowing., • It cause pin holes on leaves or "dead hearts" in stem., • The infestation may be noticed till harvesting., • Larvae remains hibernate in maize stubbles., Management:, •, Destroy stubbles, weeds & alternate hosts., • Application of Phorate 10 G @ 20 kg/ha or Carbofuran 3G, , @ 25 kg/ha., •, Release of Cotesia (Apanteles) spp., Other pests of maize:, a. Maize aphid: Rhapalosiphum maydis, Aphididae: Hemiptera, b. European corn borer: Ostrinia nubilalis, Pyralidae: Lepidoptera., (It doesn't occur in India)., , Asian maize borer: O. furnacalis: present in some part of India., d. Pink borer: Sesamia inferens, Noctuidae: Lepidoptera., • It mainly feeds on maize, rice and wheat, •, It cause 'dead heart' on central shoot in wheat (IARI, Ph.D-04), Insect -pest of sorghum:, 1. Sorghum shoot fly: Atherigona soccata, Muscidae: Diptera., • The insect attacks the young crop when it is in the six leaves, , c., , •, •, •, •, •, , stage., Six weeks after planting the crop is seldom attacked., Maggots feed on the main shoot and growing point is, destroyed which is easily plucked out., The young plants show typical 'dead hearts' symptoms (NET2013), , Cloudy weather favorable the multiplication of this insect., It is believed that infestation is also higher in irrigated fields., , Management:, " Early sowing, just after the onset of monsoon. (ARS-06), •, , Use of higher seed rate (NET -2012/13), , Entomology, , 271, , A Competitive Book of Agriculture
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•, •, •, , Use of fish meal trap (NET -2012), Removed infested plants., Application of Phorate 10 G or Carbofuran 3 G @ 2.5 kg, a.i. /ha at the time of sowing. (NET -2013), • Foliar application of Cartap hydrochloride a week after, emergence of crop., Other pests of sorghum:, a. Sorghum midge: Contarinia sorghicola, Cecidomyiidae: Diptera., b. Sorghum, c., , ear, , head, , bug:, , Calocoris, , angustatus,, , Miridae:, Hemiptera. (it laid cigar shaped eggs on sorghum leaves) JRF-06, Red spider mite: Oligonichus indicus, Tetranchydae, Acarina, (JAR!, Ph. D Ento-05), , Insect -Pests of pulses:, 1. Gram pod borer: Helicoverpa armigera, Noctuidae: Lepidoptera, • It is polyphagous & cosmopolitan in nature., • Caterpillar feed foliage, when young and on seeds in the later, stages., • Larvae pupate in soil., Management:, • Timely sowing (up to mid October)., • Grow early maturity varieties., • Mixed/intercropping with barley, wheat, mustard., • Application of NPV @ 250-500 LE/ha. (RPSC, A0-09), • Egg parasitoid Trichogramma chilonis., • Larval parasitoid of Helicoverpa is Cosmopletis chloridae., • Use of light traps and Pheromone traps., • Application of Monocrotophos @ 1.25 liter/ha at evening, time., 2. Gram cut worm: Agrotis ipsilon, Noctuidae: Lepidoptera, • Polyphagous pest but cause much damage to gram crop., • Cannibalism habit present in larvae., • The young larvae feed on the epidermis of leaves., • During day time larvae live in cracks and holes in grourid, and come out at night and fall the plants by cutting their stein, , either below the surface or above the ground., Entomology, , 272, , A Competitive Book of Agriculture
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a nagement:, • Hand picking & destruction of larvae., • Application of Flubendiamide (Fume) @ 0.5 % sprays at, , evening time., •, , Application of Malathion 5 % dust @ 25 kg/ha at evening, , time, 3. Red gram pod fly: Melanagromyza obtusa, Agromyzidae: Diptera., • The maggots eat away only a part of the seed., • The partially damaged seeds become subjected to bacterial, and fungal infection., • Grains are rendered, unfit for human consumption., • Maggots pupate in pods., Management:, • Application of Dimethoate @ 1.0 liter in 250 liter water/ha., Other pests of pulses:, a. Tur pod bug: Clavigralla gibbosa, Coreidae: Hem iptera, , (Both nymph and adult suck the cell sap on leaves and pods of, arhar, cow pea and gram)., b. Plume moth: Exelastis atomosa, Pterophoridae: Lepidoptera., • It is specific pest of arhar, • Caterpillar scrapes of pods and make hole on pods., c. Girdle beetle: Oberia bravis, Cerambycidae: Coleoptera., • It is specific pest of soybean., • The ovipositing female beetle girdles the stem twice., • It makes three punctures just above the lower ring before, , inserting a single egg through the largest hole into pith., • Management: spray methyl parathion 50 EC 1.25 liter/ha., d. Bean fly: Ophiomyia phaseoli, Agromyzidae: Diptera., • Feed on phaseolus, cow pea, soybean, arhar., e. Lentil pod borer: Edell(' zinckenella, Phycitidae: Lepidoptera., Insect -pest of mustard:, 1. Mustard aphid: Lipaphis erysimi, Aphididae: Hemiptera., • Both nymph and adult suck cell sap from leaves, stem,, inflorescence or developing pods., Entomology, , 273, , A Competitive Book of Agriculture
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•, •, , The leaves acquire a curly appearance., Breed parthenogenetically may be produced 45 generations, in a year., , Management:, • Spray Imidacloprid 200 SL @ 100 ml/ha., • Application of Oxydemeton methyl @ 625 ml/ha., • Use of predator lady bird beetle: Coccinella septempunctat, 2. Painted bug: Bagrada cruciferarum, Pantatomidae: Hemiptera., • Both nymph and adult suck cell sap from leaves and pods., • The nymph and adult bugs also excrete a short of resinous, material which spoils the pods., • Over wintering of adult stage under heaps of dried oil seed, plants lying in field., Management:, • Egg parasitoid: Gryon spp., • Spray Malathion 50 EC @ I litre in 200 liters water/ha., 3. Mustard saw fly: Athalia lugens proxima, Tenthredinidae:, Hymenoptera., • Damage done by larvae which are dark green and have 8, , pairs of abdominal prolegs. (ARS-07), • and have five black stripes on the back., • Prolegs of mustard saw fly is without crochets., Insect pest of Sesame:, 1. Til hawk moth: Acherontia styx, Sphingidae: Lepidopetra., • This insect is variously known as hawk moth, sphinx moths, or death head moth based on its structure and behavioral, •, •, , characteristics., Thorax has a prominent death head mark on the prothorax., The moths are swift fliers and often make hawk like darts to, , •, , a source of light at dusk., Full grown caterpillar which measure about 5 cm in length, , ", , one cm width often retracts and looks like a sphinx., The horn like projection on the hind end of the abdomen is, conspicuous., , Entomology, , 274, , A Competitive Book of Agriculture
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pest of sweet potato:, 1. Sweet potato horned caterpillar: Agarius convolvulus, Sphingidae:, Lepidoptera., • Larvae with presence of characteristic anal home., 2. Sweet potato weevil: Cylas formicarius, Apioniodae: Coleoptera., (JRF-07), • It's a pest of both in field and storage., , Polyphagous pest:, I. Red hairy caterpillar: Amsacta moorei, Arctiidae: Lepidoptera., • Body of caterpillars is covered with the numerous long hairs, arising from the fleshly tubers., • The entire abdomen is scarlet red there are black bands and, dots on the abdomen., • Feed on gregariously and as they grow older moult 6 times., •, •, •, •, •, , Feed on all kind vegetations of kharif season., Full gown caterpillar prefers to eat the growing points of, plants., The caterpillars are voracious defoliating the plants, , During a severe attack, the caterpillars in bands destroying, fields after field., Field after field is devastated by the moving army of, , caterpillars in the year of severe infestation there may be a, complete failure of the kharif crop., Management:, • Hairy caterpillars emerge with rainfall of mansoon so in, initial stage of larvae can be managed by digging trenches, around the field and dusted methyl parathion 2% dust., • Vegetation or field where infestation can be seen dusts, Quinolphos 1.5 % @ 25 kg/ha., • Application of diclorvos 100 EC @ 625 ml in 500 liter, •, , water/ha., , Larvae can be killed by application of Methyl parathion 0.2, % dust @ 25 kg/ha., , 2. White, , grub:, , Holotrichia, , consanguinea,, , Melolonthidae:, , Coleoptera., Entomology, , 275, , A Competitive Book of Agriculture
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•, , Polyphagous feed on all kharif crops, as Groundn u., IQ, •, L,ajra,, , •, •, •, , •, •, •, •, •, •, •, , Jowar, Sesame, Cotton, Sugarcane etc., Damage done by grub in field crops and by adults in trees., The damage caused by grub is so much so that entire stand, crop is destroyed thereby necessitating the resowing in field., During the last few years white grub has posed such a serious, and alarming situation in the country that it has been, designated as a 'National pest'., The plant damaged by the grub gives a wilted appearance, and finally dries out., In case of severe grub infestation crop is destroyed and, infested plants easily uprooted., The full grown grubs move down deeper in the soil in search, of moisture & for pupation., The grub constructed an earthen cell in which it passes a, quiescent or pre -pupal stage., After pre mansoon rain/ first shower of mansoon the adult, comes out from soil and cause damage to trees during night, Eggs are laid in singly in loose moist sandy or sandy loam, soil on the onset of monsoon., Grubs feed on the roots and rootlets of almost all types of, , kharif crops., Management:, • Collection and destruction of beetles during night with the, •, •, , help of light trap, Sumer ploughing to expose the hibernating stages., In standing crop soil application of 4 liter Chlorpyriphos 20, , •, , EC @ 4 liter/ha, Application of Quinolphos 25 EC (Ekaux) @ 3 liter/ha has, , •, •, •, , been found effective., Application of Phorate 10 G @25 kg/ha before sowing, Seed treat with Chlorpyriphos 2 ml/kg of groundnut kernels., The adult can be brought under biological controlled by a, fungus Matarrhizium anisopliae., , Fntomology, , 276, , A Competitive Book of Agriculture
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3. Locust: Family: Acrididae, Orthoptera, • Locusts belonging to the Indian subcontinent are being, , described below:, a. Bombay locust (Pantanga succinct L.):, • Mostly confined to Gujarat and Tamil Nadu, • Its breed during mansoon in the Western Ghats and has only, one brood in a year., b. Migratory locust (Locusta migratoria):, • Mainly occurs in Rajasthan and Gujarat, • Its breed twice in a year: winter -spring breeding occurs in, Pakistan and summer-mansoon breeding in Rajasthan and, Gujarat., • It may, have many broods a year., c. Desert locust (Schistocera gregarea):, • This is most destructive of all locust, The adult of this species occurs in two phases:, a. Solitary phase (solitaria): wherein the insects remain scattered, b. Gregarious phase (gregarea): wherein the insects congregates as, , nymphs and adults., Life -history:, • Mating occurs between sexually mature yellow adults., • Egg -laying starts after 8-24 hours of mating, a single female, can lay up to 500 eggs in about 5 egg -pods or capsule., • Female inserts her long ovipositor in sandy soil to bore a hole, •, , •, , 2-4 inches deep., The summer breeding occurs during June —September, (mansoon) in this quiescent eggs are hatched out and, nymphal period is about 12-15 days, within this period, emerges in five nymphal instars., Within the period of one month nymphal stage emerges into, , adult., Damage:, • Both nymphs and adults cause damage, , Host plants:, 277, Entomology, , A Competitive Book of Agriculture
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•, , Mainly pearl millet, sorghum, maize but being Polyphagous, , nature it's eat on all kind of vegetation except a few namely,, aak, neem, dhatura, Jamun and sheesham., Management:, • Eggs can be destroyed by deep summer ploughing or flooding, • The nymphs are t!.e most vulnerable stage for management, •, •, , point of view, Because at second and third nymphal stage is key stage where, pest population can be checked., , A trench can be dug around the breeding field of locust so, that when nymphs emerge, they can be buried under soil, or, methyl parathion 2% can be dusted to kill the emerging, nymphs., , •, , When infestation starts on field crops or vegetation around, the field duts, methyl parathion 2% or Malathion 5% @ 25, kg/ha on field crops including field border and vegetation of, non cropped area., , 4., , Termite: Odontotermes obesus, Termitidae: Isoptera., • Also known as white ants., •, , Termite lives in social colony in underground nets make, , earthen moulds (termatoria)., A. Reproductive castes:, (i) Colonizing individuals:, • Winged individuals of both sexes and are produced in large, , number during rainy season., • After mating they cast off the wings and start a new colony., (ii)Queen:, • Only perfectly developed female in the colony., • It measures about 5.0-7.5 cm in length and she is known as a, phenomenon, 'Egg laying machine'., • It laying one egg/second or 70,000-80,000 eggs in 24 hours., •, , Queen fed by workers, choicest food live in "royal, chamber" which situated in centre of nest (0.5 m depth)., (iii) King:, • It developed from unfertilized eggs., Entomology, A Competitive Book of Agriculture, 278
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•, , It lives with queen in royal chamber & smaller than queen, and mates with queen from time to time., (iv) Complementary caste:, • Short winged or wingless of both sexes lead a subterranean, •, , life, They replaced in place of queen & king after ultimately death, , of them., (v) Sterile caste:, a. Workers:, •, •, •, •, , They develop from fertilized eggs but remain stunted., , Actual members that cause damage to crops., Smaller than soldier & numerous in population, Except reproduction and defense of community,, , practically all other duties are performed by the workers, they take care of eggs, fed queen and cultivate fungus, food ambrosia in underground gardens., b. Soldier:, • They develop from unfertilized egg and remaining, •, , underdeveloped., They most specialized member of the community and can, be recognized by the large head & strong chitinized sickle, shaped mandibles adopted for protection of colony., , Management:, • When a colony is established, it is not so easy to, eradicate; only sure method is to reach the centre of nest, and kill the queen and the complementary forms., • Before sowing granular application of Regent (Fipronil 5, , % SC) @ 20 kg /ha., , •, , Shouldn't be use of undecomposed green manure and, , •, , FYM at termite susceptible field., Seed treat with Chlorpyriphos 20 EC @ 450m1/100 kg, , •, , of seeds in wheat., In standing crop application of Chlorpyriphos 20 EC @, , 4 liter/ha, Entomology, , 279, , A Competitive Book of Agriculture
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•, , Serious pests of wheat, rice and barley, , Mark of identification:, •, •, •, •, •, •, •, •, •, , First reported in rice so named rice weevil, It prefers humid climate, Dark brown in colour, Most identified structure is presence of rostrum, Head is protruded into snout (rostrum), Reddish orange circular markings on the elytra, Grub is most injurious stage of damage, Very difficult for this weevil to survive at low moisture, In adult two pair of spot are presented on elytra, , Other species:, a. Sitophilus granarium: Could not fly, wings are fused,, other species are strong fliers, b. Sitophilus zeamais: Largest in sized, can tolerate to high, moisture and damage is done at milky stage., 2. Lesser grain borer: Rhizopertha dominica, , Host:, , • Prefer the dark and moist place, • Wheat, rye, jowar, Mark of identification:, • Beetle is more harmful than grubs, • Pronotum is rounded at the front where as the transfer, row of teeth centrally and posterior flattened, • Lay eggs pear shaped and white later change into, pinkish colour, • Pupation takes place inside the grains, • Profuse powdery substances is characteristic feature, of its damage, • adults are good fliers, 3. Khapra beetle: Trogoderma granarium, • External feeder, secondary pest, Damage:, • At high temperature & less humidity damage is done, by grub (larvae)., 282, , A Competitive Book of AgrkidItWe
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Mark of identification:, •, •, •, , Its eggs stage is highly sensitive to oxygen, Can be live at less moisture availability, Adult are harmless only larvae cause damage on, whole grain, , •, , Adults are blackis in colour usually 2.5mm in size, , with distinct marking on wings, • Larvae having long hairs on the hind end of body, which helps in movement of body, • It can be live without food upto 4-5 year even 7 years, • At serious infestation in wheat grain eaten completely, and white portion left looked like rice., 4. Red four beetle: Tribolium castaneum, • it is germ (external) feeder, , Damage:, •, •, •, , Adult and larvae both are damaging stage, Damage the processed food, flour, suji, meda, In case of huge damage the flour turned grayish, yellowish colour & gives peculiar pungent smell., , Mark of identification:, •, •, •, •, , Female lay eggs singly in flour upto 400 eggs, Eggs are white cylindrical and hatch about 4-10 days, In adult head, thorax and abdomen is very distinct, Cannibalism is also very common in this insect, , 5. Saw tooth beetle: ayzaephilus surinamensis, • Secondary pest, , Mark of identification:, •, , Larvae are straw coloured & dark patches on both side of, , the body, • In adult each side of thorax found six teeth like projection, • Generally larvae feed endosperm of the grain, 6. Pulse beetle: Callosobruchus chinensis, • First discovered in China so named chinesis, , Entomology, , 283, , A Competitive Book of Agriculture
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•, , Mostly damage the pulses in storage but its also pest of, pulse field, , Mark of identification:, •, •, •, •, •, , Only eggs and adult are visible, Antennae are serrate in female but pectinate in male, Elytra covers the full body, , In hind femur spine teeths are present, Adults are small chocolate dark brown coloured, , B. LeDidonteran pests:, 1. Anguimois grain moth: Sitotroga cerealella, • Its also pest of field, • In storage the infestation is restricted by surface, • Damage is done by larvae, • At high moisture infestation is more, • Eggs are red coloured, • The hole made by the larvae is very small, • After entering the larvae hole is closed by silken web so, difficult to see, • If grain is small the pupation occur 2-3 grains holding, together, • Adult moth are golden brown coloured with two pair of, wings, • Wing margin is fringed and wings are pointed at the tip, 2. Rice moth: Corcyra cephalonica: Pyralidae, Lepidoptera, • Present in humid area, • External feeder, • Heavy infestation recognized by webbing, • Larvae are pale white except the head capsule brown, • Hind wing are mid brown & fore wing with thin lines, of darker along the wing veins, 3. Almond moth: Ephestia cautella, • External feeder, • Only larvae are germ feeder, • Larvae covers with hairs, Entomology, , 284, , A Competitive Book of Agriculture
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•, •, , Adult are 13mm in length wings are roof like on the, abdomen, Fore and hind wings are rounded at the tip, , Factors ovetg_'Aiig..81_fi._gvdrain infestation, A. Physical factors:, 1. Temperature: It is one of the most important factor of, , environment as the multiplication of insect pests of stored, grains depends on it. The minimum temperature at which, theseinsects are able to develops and multiply is between, 15.5 to 18.3 °C many of insects can live for long periods at, lower temperature. the optimum temperature for most of the, species lies between 28-32 °C., 2. Moisture: Most of storage insects needs more than 10%, moisture and the optimum is around 14% therefore, grains, having less than 10% moisture is considered safe for storage, (NET -2013). If moisture is less than 10% the most of insects, avoided the infestation except Khapra beetle. Low moisture, , avoided the growth of insects and maintains the viability of, seed., 3. Oxygen: Insects required more 0 2 as compare to grain, , respiration. Khapra beetle at eggs stage is highly susceptible, to oxygen concentration., B. Biological agencies:, 1. Insects: The average loss due to stored grain pests is about, 10-1 % of grains but contaminate the rest with undesirable, odour and flavors. The majority of storage insects belongs to, the order coleopteran (60%) and Lepidoptera (8-9%) of total, number of species., 2. Mites: Mites infect and deteriorate the quality and quantity of, grains., 3. Rodents: It includes rats, mice and squirrels, these are, omnivorous and feed on grains. Rodents are responsible for, causing enormous losses to stored grains., 4. Birds: Birds also cause damage to grain crops and fruits., 5. Fungi: At favorable moisture availability development of, , fungi also serious causes for grain spoilage common storage, grains fungi are Aspergillus spp. and Fusurium spp. etc., Entomology, , 285, , A Competitive Book of Agrkultuife
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Management of storage pests:, 1. Seed treatment: Malathion 5% dust * 250g/qt. of seeds is, recommended or 2m1 of fenvalerate in 500 ml of water for one qt., of seeds., 2. Surface treatment: Bags dipped into 0.0125% fenvalerate 20, EC or cypermethrin 25 EC for 10 minutes and drying them in, shade or Spray 0.05% malathion 50 EC emulsion on floor, wall, , and ceilings., 3., , Fumigation:, , Fumigats, , the, , stored, , grains, , with Ethylene, dichlorine + Carbon tetrachloride @, 1 lit/20 qt. of grains or, Methyl bromide @ 3.5 kg/100 m3 for 10-12 hours or Hydrogen, phosphide or aluminium phosphide 1 tab./metric tonne of, grains., , Insect ecology:, • It may be defined as that branch of biological sciences which, is concern with the relation of the insect to their environment., • These environmental relationships which can be analyzed and, organized constitute the subject matter of ecology., Ante ecology:, • The study of individual organisms or species in relation to its, environment., Synecology:, • The study of groups of organism comprising different species, , in relation to their environment., Population:, • A group of organisms of the same species occupying a, particular area at a specific time is called a population., Biome:, ▪ Biome is an ecosystem of a large area in which the nature of, , stable communities is similar in appearance., Ecological niche:, • Every organisms occupies a particular physical location at a, given time and does a given thing (eats, copulates and rests, fotompiogy, , 286, , A Competitive Book of Agriculture
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etc) at that place and time at the location is known as niche of, a particular organism., Actually niche is the occupation of an organism in a, particular ecosystem., , •, Guild:, , •, , A group of species within a community which have the same, or very similar niches or different niches whose living is, similar as they obtained & utilize response in the same ways, e.g. foliage feeders., , Homeostasis:, • The term generally applied to the tendency for biological, , system to a resist changes and to remain in a state of, equilibrium., • Also known as stability in ecosystem or balance of nature., Bioluminescence:, •, , The production of light by living organism is called, bioluminescence. It has one or more functions viz., illumination, attracting potential prey and matting behavior, , e.g. spring tails, cicadas and certain families of coleoptera., Sibling species:, • Group of similar closely related species which are, reproductively isolated but morphologically identical or, nearly so., Life table:, •, , The tabular representation of death rate, cause• of death,, chances of survival and life expectancy is called life table., , Law of tolerance:, • Given by V. E. Shelford 1913., • Law of tolerance deals with the limiting effect of maximum, as well as minimizes temperature on the presence and success, of organisms., , Entomology, , 287, , A Competitive Book of Agriculture
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7. PLAP4 PATHOLOGY, Important points:, ✓, ✓, ✓, ✓, ✓, ✓, ✓, ✓, •, ✓, ✓, ✓, •, ✓, ✓, ✓, ✓, ✓, ✓, ✓, , Father of plant pathology: Anton de berry, Bordeaux mixture was developed by: P.M.A. Millardet (1885), Wart disease of potato is caused by: Synchytrium endobioticum, Bunchy top of banana: caused by: Virus, Late blight of potato is caused by: Phytophthora infestans, Club root of cauliflower is caused by: Plasmodiophora brassicae., Father of microbiology: Louis Pasteur, Ooze test is done for detecting: Bacteria, , White rust of cruciferous is caused by: Albugo candida, Papaya mosaic disease is: Viral, Brown spot of rice caused by: Helminthosporium oryzae (ARS-I0), Systemic fungicide is discovered by: Van Schleming and Kulka, Caulflower mosaic virus contain: DNA, Bacteria used in biological control: Pseudomonas fluorescens, Most of plant viruses are: ss-RNA (78% of all plant viruses), The largest single group of plant viruses family is: Potyviridae, Carboxin (Vitavex) is very effective against: Smuts disease, Downy mildew of bajra is caused by: Sclerospora graminicola, Generally viruses are composed of: Nucleic acid and protein, The causal organism of black rust of wheat is: Puccinia, graminis tritici, ✓, The prions are considred to be infectious protien which have, no nucleic acids., ✓, Agar agar is produced by: Nostoc (Red algae), ✓, Agar -agar is obtained from: Red sea algae, ✓, Wart disease of potato in the country is restricted to:, Darjeeling hills, ✓, Mycoplasma is sensitive to: Tetracycline, ✓, First transgenic plant was developed in the world is: Tobacco, The downy mildew of pearl millet is suppressed by: Chlorine, (RAS Pre -09), • Loose smut pathogen of wheat is: Internally seed borne, 1 One of factors causing malformation of mango is: Fungus, e'^, , Mont Antio/ogy, , 288, , 4 Competitive Book of Agriculture
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I, , The most effective fungicide for the control of powdry mildew:, Sulphur fungicide (Karathane), , •, , The vector responsible for spread of potato leaf roll virus disease, is: Aphids, Majority of plant disease viruses are: ssRNA(+) viruses, Alexander Fleming (1929) first time discovered antibiotic, Penicillium., The MLO's when, appeared in spiral (helical) in shape and are, motile known as: Spiroplasma., The sum total of all symptoms and signs is: Syndrome, The first bacterial disease was discovered: Fire blight of pear., The fungus causing late blight of potato and white rust of crucifers, belong to order Peronosporales, The cybrids contain: nucleus of one and the cytoplasm of both the, parents, In rust fungi repeating spores are: Uredospores, Sexual spores in downy mildew fungus is: Oospores, The incidence of blast disease can be reduces by application of:, Silicon in rice, Smut fungi belongs to the genera: Ustilaginales, Vertical resistance is also known as: Major gene/qualitative/race, , ✓, V, ✓, •, ✓, •, ✓, ✓, ✓, I, •, , specific resistance, / Examples of prokaryotes are: BGA, bacteria and phytoplasma, • Moko disease of banana is caused by: Pseudomonas, , solanacearum, 'Pine -apple disease' is associated with sugarcane caused by:, , ✓, •, ✓, , Ceratocystis paradoxa (fungi)., , Agr, °bacterium mediated gene transfer is only effective for: Dicots, Antibiotic used to kill MLOs (no cell wall in ML0s) is:, Tetracycline (because it acts on cell membrane), Coffee rust occurred in Sri Lanka 1867 by: Heti:dela vastatrix, • of virus particles first obtained by: Stanley 1935, ✓ Downey mildew fungi belongs to order: Peronosporales, • ELISA (Enzyme -Linked Immune-Sorbent Assay) test is mainly, done for: Viral diseases., • Purification (crystallization) of TMV is done by: Stanley (1935), Piont Pathology, , 289, , A Competitive Book of Agriculture, , . !: . ,
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•, ✓, ✓, , Ergot is a mycelium form called: Sclerotia, The most common vectors of plant viruses are: Aphids, In downey mildew of Bajra Oospores are resting spores, which are, responsible for primary infection, • Gram staining method in bacteria was given by: Christian Gram, 1884, The effective and new fungicide for the control of Oomycetous, fungi is: Metalaxyl (marketed under the trade names of Ridomil &, Apron), I Most dangerous and poisonous mushroom is: Amanita phalloides, • Purple blotch of onion is caused by: Alternaria porri, I Pathogenesis: The chain of metabolic events that bring about the, disease is pathogenesis., • Pathogenicity: The relative capability of a pathogen to cause, •, •, •, 1, , •, ✓, , 1, , disease, Virulence: The degree of infectivity of a given pathogen., Virion: it consist of nucleic acid (may be DNA or RNA) and a, surrounding protein coat (known as a capsid)., Infection: establishment of pathogen after penetration, has host, parasitic relationship, Inoculums: Part of pathogen, which on contact can cause, infection in the host, is called inoculums e.g. conidia, spores,, sclerotia etc. serves as inoculums., Invasion: The penetration and spread of a pathogen in the host, Incubation period: The period of time between penetration of a, pathogen to the host and the first appearance of symptoms on the, , plant., Disease potential: It is defined as the ability of the host to contract, disease., , Unit -1, Plant pathology, • Name derived from two Greek words., Pathos = Suffering, Logus = Study, Plant Pathology, , 290, , A Competitive Book or Agriculture
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•, , Means plant pathology is the study of causes of suffering, plants and their management., Historical background:, a. Iris famine: 1845:, •, , Occurred due to late blight of potato (Phytophthera, infestans). This disease destroyed the entire potato crop., , •, , In Ireland 20 lacks peoples were died due to starvation., b. Coffee rust 1867:, •, , Occurred in Shri Lanka due to Hemilia vestetricola., , Downy mildew of grapes in France:, • It was caused by Plasmapora viticola., • Millardet discovered Bordeaux mixture in 1885 for the, control of downy mildew of grapes., • Composition: Copper sulphate (5 pound): lime (5, pound): water (50 gallon)., d. Bengal famine, 1943:, • Due to brown spot of rice (Helminthosporiwn otyzae)., e. Theophrastus: (380-287 B.C.), •, Wrote two books: 'The nature of plants' and 'Reasons, of vegetable growth'., , c., , f., , • For this works Theophrastus called as 'Father of Botany'., Anton van Leeuwenhoek (1675):, • Developed the first microscope and he first described, , g., , bacteria., He known as father of microbiology, P.A Michell (1729):, • He studied the fungi and saw fungal spores., • Known as father of Mycology., • Wrote a book 'Nova Plantarum Genera', •, , h. Linnaeus (1753):, I Gave 'Binomial system of nomenclature' in 10th Edition, of his famous book Systema naturae (1958), V. Famous book 'Species Planetarium' written by:, •, i•, , Linnaeus., He known as 'Father of Zoological Classification'., , Tillet (1755):, Plant Pathology, , 291, , A Competitive Book of Agriculture
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•, , Published a paper on bunt or stinking smut of wheat, , Prevost (1807):, , j., , •, , Proved that bunt of wheat caused by a fungus., , •, •, , Used copper sulphate to controlled bunt of wheat., So credit for discovering the life cycle of the bunt fungus, goes to Prevost., Anton de berry (1861):, •, Known as father of modern mycology, • He conducted detail study of potato late blight and, proved that fungus phytophthora infestans was the cause, , k., , •, , of late blight., The discovery of heteroecious nature of rust fungi was, , reported by him in 1885., 1. Brefeld (1875):, •, Developed methods of artificial culture of microbes., • Father of pure culture technique., m. Robert Koch (1876):, • Father of medical bacteriology, • Discovered first bacterial etiology of anthrax disease, • He gave the famous Koch's postulates (theory) for, , proving that a particular organism caused is a particular, n., , o., , p., , q., , disease., T. J. Burril (1882): (USA), • First reported that a plant disease (fire blight of pear) was, caused by a bacterium (now known as Erwinia, amylovora)., Flor (1946):, • Proposed gene for gene concept of disease resistance and, susceptibility with working on linseed rust., Vanderplank (1963):, • Suggested two kinds of resistance i.e. vertical resistance, and horizontal resistance., Kassanis (1962):, • Satellite viruses were discovered by him. he observed that, some trains of Tobacco Necrosis Virus (TNV) contained a, Plant Potholoav, , etf, , Anriculture
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smaller particles of virus (satellite virus) that was, dependent for its replication on TNV., r. Shepherd etal. (1968):, •, First reported double -stranded DNA in cauliflower, mosaic virus, followed by the discovery of single stranded, DNA Geminiviruses by Goodman (1971)., s. Diener (1971):, •, Discovered viroid, a new kind of plant pathogen which is, associated with potato spindle disease. they don't have, protein coat., History of plant pathology in India:, a. K.R. Kirtikar:, • First Indian scientists who collected and identified the, fungi in India., b. E.J. Butler:, • Known as Father of Indian Plant Pathology, • Wrote a book "Fungi and Diseases in Plants", c. Dr. K.C. Mehta:, • At Agra, discovered the disease cycle of wheat rust in, India., d. B.B. Mundkur: 1948, • He started work on control of cotton wilt through varietal, resistance., The most significant contribution of Mundkur to plant, pathology in India will be recommended through the, Indian Phytopathological Society which he started, almost single handed in 1948 with its journal 'Indian, phytopathology'., • He also authored a text book "Fungi and Plant Diseases"., Classification of plant disease: based on occurrence., a. Endemic disease:, • When a disease is more or less constantly present from, year to year in moderate to severe form in a particular part, of country or state it is classified as endemic to that area., • The word "endemic" means prevalent in, and confined to,, a particular country, district, or location., •, , Plant Pa thology, , 293, , A Competitive Book of Agriculture
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• E.g. Early blight of potato., b. Epidemic disease:, , •, •, •, , A disease which occurs widely in severe but periodically, It assumes severe form only on occasions., Examples: Red rot of sugar cane, Late blight of potato,, , Wheat rusts., c. Sporadic disease:, • Occur at very irregular intervals and locations e.g. Green, ear disease of Bajra., d. Pandemic disease:, • When a disease prevalent throughout the country continent, or the world is known as pandemic disease., General symptoms of diseases:, SN, 1, 2, 3, , Symptoms, Downy, mildew, Powdery, mildew, , Character, The superficial growth of the pathogen is a cottony, or downy layer of leaves surface., Dusty or powdery appearance (growth) of fungus, , Rust, , Rusty appearance and appear as relatively small, (i), (ii), , on upper surface of plants., , pustules of spores., Autocious rust: Complete its life cycle in same, host eg. Linseed rust., Heteroecious rust: The rust which requires, , alternate host or completes their life cycle more, 4, 5, , Anthracnose, Smut, , 6, , White, blisters, , 7, , Scab, , 8, , Sclerotia, Plant Pathology, , than one host eg. Wheat rusts., Ulcer -like lesions on stem and pods., Sooty or charcoal -like powder. Plant shows a black, or purplish black dusty mass composed of the, fungus spores particularly in ovulary part of floral, organs., Generally on leaves of crucifers plants there may, be found numerous white, blister -like pustules, which break open and expose white powdery mass, of spores. known as white rusts., Refers to a roughened or crust -like lesion or to a, freckled appearance of the diseased organ., A compact, often hard, mass of dormant fungus, mycelium., , 294, , ..._, , A Competitive Book of AgriCUltUfe, , __
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Phyllody, , 10, , Etiolation, , 11, , Exudation, , 12, , Chlorosis, , 12, 14, , Necrosis, Hyperplasia, , 15, , Hypertrophy, , 16, 17, 18, , Curl, Wilt, Damping off, , 19, 20, , Blight, Canker, , 21, , Die -back, , It is a serious problem of sesame and pearl millet., Transformation of floral part in green leafy, structure., When the loss of green colour is due to prolonged, exposure to darkness the condition is called, etiolation., , Masses of bacterial cell ooze out to the surface of, affected plant parts and form some drops or smear,, it is called exudation., Yellowing of leaves due to lack of chlorophyll., , ___, , Refers to death of tissues or cells., It is the abnormal increase in size of the organ due, to an increase in number of cells of organ (due to, cell division)., Increased size of organ is due to increase in size of, cells (owing to nucleus division), Leaves are arched, twisted and curled appearance, Drying or drooping of leaves due to loss of turgor, Stem affected the near of soil at seedling stage by, Pythium spp., Burnt like appearance on plant parts., Dead area in the bark or cortex of stem of woody, plants., drying of twigs and branches of plants from the top, backwards., , Unit -2, Fungi, , Fungi are filamentous, multi -cellular organisms, having organized, nucleus with nuclear membrane, always lacking of chlorophyll,, but presence of cell wall in true fungi and multiplication by, production of asexual or sexual spores of vegetative cells., •, , The fungal branches are known as hypae and the entire, , vegetative body is known as mycelium., Vegetative structure of fungi:, , Plant Pathology, , 295, , A Competitive Book of Agriculture
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•, , In the true fungi true cell wall is present whether the, , thallus is a unicellular or a multicellular branching body., •, , The branches are known as hyphae and the entire, vegetative body is called mycelium., Reproduction of fungi:, a. Asexual reproduction:, •, In asexual reproduction the hyphae cut off minute spores., • The structure and origin of these spores vary greatly and, each types has been given different names i.e., chlamydospores,, conidiophores, (conidia),, in, mastigomycotina sporangium, sporangia are formed, in, aquatic forms, sporangia liberate naked protoplasmic, bodied, the swamspore or zoospores., • In the ascomycotina and deuteromycotina, the conidia, may be produced in special structures known as pycnidia,, sporodochia, acervali., b. Sexual reproduction:, • Involves two separate gametes., • The sexual reproduction by union of two morphologically, dissimilar gametes is known as oogamy (leads to, development of simple structure oospores or a complex, fruit cleitothecium, perithecium, apothecium)., • In most of higher form of fungi the sexual process, involves the union of two similar gamatangia. This is, known as isogamy (lead to formation of zygospore or, zygote)., Common group of plant diseases fungi are:, I. Ustilaginales :, Smut fungi, 2. Uredinales :, Rust fungi, 3. Erysiphaceae :, Powdery mildews, 4. Peronosporaceae :, Downy mildews, Fungicides: are chemicals used to kill fungi., 1. Sulphur fungicides:, • Two main groups:, a. Elemental sulphur: is used as dust and wettable powder, b. Lime sulphur: is used as dormant spray, Plant Pathology, , 296, , A Competitive Book of Agriculture
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•, , Sulphur fungicides are effective against powdery, , mildews., 2. Copper compound fungicides:, a., Copper sulphate:, •, , It was first discovered by Prevost .1807 and used, , against bunt of wheat., b. Bordeaux mixture:, •, PME Millardet Prof. of botany at Bordeaux in France, (1885) discovered Bordeaux mixture from the mixture, of copper sulphate and lime., • It was used against downy mildew of grapes, • Composition = Copper sulphate + lime + water (5: 5:, 50: ratio)., , Burgundy mixture: 1887, •, In this mixture lime is replaced by sodium carbonate or, , c., , washing soda. (ARS-I0), Bur ,, clidv mixture: Copper, , •, , ,•, , ea, d., , etc., , 3., , Con-, , (8:8, Thiocarbot, •, , :ition: Copper carbonate + red lead + raw, fungicides:, , form, , i, , b., , Ziram:, •, It i,, , d., , Riste:, ised as a wound dressing fungicides against, !. apple and pear as black stem, brown stem, , • is an important component in the structural, , Thiram, , •, •, , sodium, , s till, , a., , •, , +, , + water (5:6:50), , Chant r, • *1.1u, dise •, , sulphate, , It i•, , of Thiocarbonate fungicides., , isically used as a seed protectant, nc containing Fungicide., , It cc,,,caining both zinc and Mn., Best and widely used fungicide, , Vapam/Metham-sodi um:, • It is soil fungicides., , Plant Pathology, , 297, , A Competitive Book ef Ariceiture
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•, , Used as soil sterilient for fungicides, nematodes and, herbicides., 4. Systemic fungicides:, a. Oxathiin:, • The first systemic fungicide Carboxin was developed, by Von Schmeling and Kulka in 1966., (i) Carboxin/DMO:, • Trade name is Vitavax., • Used against smuts and rusts, • Especially is used against loose smut of wheat and, Rhyzocionia disease of cotton., (ii) Oxycarboxin:, • Trade name Plantvax, • used against rusts of wheat, • It can be used in controlling disease related to fungi, imperfecti., 5. Benzimidazoles:, • It comes under the name of Benomyl or Bavistin., • It is a superior systemic fungicide which acts as a, good eradicate and protectant., 6. Phenylamides:, • Metalaxyl M was the superior fungicides introduced, in 1977., • Active on oomycetous fungi and it inhibit rRNA, synthesis., 7. Organo-mercurial fungicides:, • Its effective fungicides and bacterial-cide, • Because of its high toxicity it is not used to control plant, •, , diseases., E.g. Agrosan GN, Aretan, Ceresan, Agallol., , 8. Other fungicides:, a. Captan:, • Seed treatment and soil drenching @ 0.5 % for, protection against damping off, b. Karathane:, , Plant Pathology, , 298, , A Competitive Book of Agriculture
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•, , Used against powdery mildew disease in plants and, controlling of mites., c. Antibiotics:, • Streptomycin: at 100 ppm or more has been found, effective against bacterial seed borne pathogen., • To reduce the possibility of development of resistant, strain in bacteria, streptomycin is mixed with, Oxytetracyclin (Terramycin). This mixture is called, Agrimycin., d. Triazoles:, • This is most active on powdery mildews, rusts and, leaf spot fungi., • This is important member of sterol biosynthesis, inhibitors (SBIs)., Fungicides and their trade name:, S.N. Common name, 1, Copper fungicides, Bordeaux mixture, Burgandy mixture, Copper oxychloride, Copper sulphate, ., , 4., , Cu2SO4: lime: water, Lime replaced by Na2CO3, Blitox-50, Fytolan,, Blue copper, , Organo mercurial, Ceresan, Ethyl mercury chloride, Methoxy, ethyl, mercuric Aretan, Agallol, chloride, Phenyl mercury, , ., , Trade name, , acetate, , +, , Agrosan G N, , ethyl mercuric chloride, Benzimidazoles, Benlate, , Benomyl, , Carbendazim, , Bavistin, , Dithiocarbamate, Maneb, , Plant Pathology, , Dithane M-22, , 299, , A Competitive Book of Agriculture
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It includes crop rotation, sanitation, elimination of alternate, and over wintering hosts, elimination of pathogen from the, seeds, tubers etc., 3, Protective: application of chemical fungicides., A. Seed treatment (by physical methods):, 1. Hot water treatment method:, It was developed by Jensen in 1887., 1 Provide hot water to seeds about 54° C for 10 minutes., E.g. loose smut of wheat controlled by hot water treatment, of seeds., 2. Solar energy treatment:, 1 To control loose smut of wheat was first developed by, Luthra & sattar, 1934, 1 In this method seeds are soaked in water for 4-5 hours,, , 1, , and dried in sun in the month of May —June by the keeping, on cemented floor or metal- sheet., This method is used to control loose smut of wheat anti", barley., , Unit -3, Classification of plant diseases, , 1. Bacterial diseases:, •, , Phylum Proteobacteria is the biggest phylum containing the, gram negative bacteria e.g. Agrobacterium, Rhizobium,, v it,,,,ymnas Pseudomonas, Erwinia, Serratia etc., Vector, , Causal bacteria, , SN, , Common name, , I, , Citrus canker, , 2, , Black rot of crucifers, , Xanthomonas, compestris, , Bacterial blight of rice, , Xanthomonas oryzae, , -4, , - Angular leaf spot/black, arm of cotton, Plant Pathology, , Xanthomonas curl, , -, , Xanthomonas, malvacearum, , 301, , A Competitive Book of Agriculture
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Cow pea, , Mosaic, , Aphid: Aphis craccivora, , Mango, , Malformation, , Bud mite: Aceria mangiferae, , Unit -4, Crop Diseases, , Rice, 1. Blast (or rotten neck): Pyricularia oryzae, •, Most severe disease of rice also called as rich men's disease., • Air borne disease, conidia spread by wind cause secondary, , infection., Symptoms:, • Brown spindle eye boat (spindle) shaped lesion on leaf, and, leaf sheath., • At the end of season rotten neck or collar rot symptoms, appear., • The infected pedicels result in non production of seeds is, called blanking., Management:, • Seed treatment with Thiram @ 2.5 g/kg of seeds, • Spray Mencozeb @ 0.3 % on standing crops, , Bacterial leaf blight of rice (BLB): Xanthomonas oryzae, Symptoms:, • Initially 'blighting starts from tip of leaves to the base'., • Bacterial ooze appears on the surface of legions., • Later `Kresele (seedling wilt) occurs plant withers and dry, 3., , up., , Management:, • Seed treatment with Streptocyclin 0.015 %, • 3- 4 spray of Agrimycin 100g + 500g of copper oxychloride, in 500 liter water/ha., •, , Spray of Bacteromycin @ 25 g/ha., , Plant Pathology, , 304, , A Competitive Book of Agriculture
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4. Brown leaf spot: Helminthosporium oryzae., • This disease is responsible for The Great Bengal Famine in, 1943., Symptoms:, , •, •, , Many dark brown spots on upper surface of leaves, This disease is severe on potash deficiency soils., 5. Khaira disease:, • Due to zinc deficiency, •, , Usually in nursery chloratic or yellow patches at leaf base on, , both sides of midrib, Management:, • Spray (4) 5 kg ZnSO4/ha, , Bakanae disease:, , 6., , •, , Foot rot or Bakanae "disease Gibberella fujikorai isolated by, a Japanese scientist Kurasova., , • This disease is also known as 'foolish seedling disease'., 7. Pan Sukh: Dry physiological disease., • Management:, drain excess water, apply ammonium, , sulphate @ 15-20 kg/ha., 8. Tungro disease: Rice Tungro virus (NET ento-2013), • Vector is: Green Leaf Hopper (Nephottetix virscence), • The rice tungro is unique disease which is caused by two, viruses, as RNA virus (RTSV), and a DNA virus (RTBV)., 8 Stunting of plants and leaf yellowing are two main symptoms, , of tungro., Other minor diseases of rice:, • Sheath blight: Rhyzoctonia solani, • Grassy stunt: Viral (vector `13PH' Nilaparvata 'wens), •, •, , Yellow dwarf: Due to Phytoplasma, Udbatta disease: Due to fungus Ephelis oryzae', , Wheat, 1. Rust,, 4' Brown/leaf rusts: Paccinia recondita tritici, • It's most widespread and most damaging in our country., Plant Pathology, , 305, , A Competitive Book of Agriculture
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•, , It is earliest in appearance on wheat in India., , Symptoms:, • Bright orange, uredinial pustules, scattered mainly on leaves., b. Yellow or stripe rust: Puccinia striformis:, • The yellow rust is major disease in N.W. part of country., Symptoms:, • Lemon yellow pastules develops in a rows on leaf, leaf, , sheath, and glumes., c. Black/stem rust: Puccinia graminis tritici, • Known as 'Killer' disease of wheat, ■ Because of late appearance the damage is less than other rusts, • Severe in Southern, Central and Eastern India, Symptoms:, ■ Elongated brown pustules of uredinia appear on stem, leaf, sheath and leaves but stem often most severally affected., , Management of rusts:, • Avoid late sowing, •, •, •, •, 2., , Use of resistance varieties, Use high dose of potassic fertilizer, After appearance of symptoms spray of Mencozeb @ 2 kg/ha, , Dusting of Sulphur @ 25 kg/ha is effective against all three, , rusts infestation., Karnal bunt/partial bunt: Neovossia indica, •, time reported in Karnal (PB) by Mitra (1931), ■ Called as 'Cancer' of wheat and it is new emerging disease, •, , at International level., Many countries have imposed restrictions to import of wheat, from diseased area (quarantine importance disease)., , Symptoms:, •, •, •, , Infection occurs at flowering stage by air -borne spordia., Few grains are partially converted into black sooty powder., Rotten black powder gives a foul smell due to the presence of, tri-methyl-amine., , • The prepared flour is of dark colour and gives a fishy smell., • Disease is seed, soil and air borne, vlanagement:, Plant Pathology, , 306, , A Competitive Book of Agriculture
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•, , It is soil, seed and air borne disease hence grow resistance, , varieties only option, • Avoid excessive irrigation particularly at flowering., • Seed treatment with Agrosan-GN (PMA) @ 2.5 gm/kg seeds, 3. Loose smut: Ustilago nuda tritici, • Internally seed borne disease, Symptoms:, • Early emergence of heads, • Entire 'ear' except the rachis and awns, are smutted, • Initially the spore masses are covered by a silvery membrane., • Later production of black powder in place of grains., Management:, • Seed treatment with vitavax @ 2.5 g/kg of seeds, • Solar heat treatment of seeds: given by Jensen (1888), •, Hot water treatment: 54 °c for 30 minutes., •, Roguining of diseased plants, 4. Powdery mildew (Erysiphe graminis, •, White powdery growth of fungus on the upper surface of, leaves., • It managed by sulphur dusting @ 25kg/ha., 5. Tundu disease/sehu/yellow ear rot disease: Corynebacterium, tritici + Anguina tnitici, Symptoms:, • Curling of affected plant leaves, • Bright yellow slimy ooze on leaves and inflorescence, • Agglutinated inflorescence, Management:, • Floatation of seeds in 20 % salt solution., •, Roughing, 6. Other diseases of wheat:, a. Flag smut: Urocystis tritici, b. Hill bunt: Tilletia foetadalearies., c. Ear—cockle of wheat: due to Anguina Oda It is managed by, seed floatation in 20% salt solution before sowing., , Plant Pathology, , 307, , A Compp0Pve Book et Agriculture
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Barley, 1. Covered smut: Usti!ago hordei, Symptoms:, • Smutted head, • Grains replaced by black agglutinated spore masses., , Management:, • Externally seed borne hence easy to control,, • Seed dressing with Agrosan GN @ 2.5 g/kg seeds., 2. Loose smut: Ustilago nada, same as wheat, 3. Powdery mildew: Erysiphe graminis var. hordei, Symptoms:, • Cottony growth on both the leaf surface, Management:, • Spray of sulphur fungicides e.g. Karathane, , reari male, .1., , Downy mildew/green ear disease: Sclerospora graminicola, • Ear transformed into green leaf like or leafy whorl type, structure., , Management:, •, •, •, , Roughing of diseased plant, , Crop rotation about 4-5 year, Seed treatment with Apron S.D. @ 6 gm/kg seed before, sowing., , • Spray Mencozeb @ 2kg/ha 21 days after sowing., 2. Ergot: Claviceps fusiformis:, • First appear on the ears in the form of honey like pinkish, liquid, Sclerotia, • Later on pinkish liquid appear as brown to black., Management:, • Avoid late planting., • Seed treatment with Captan/Thiram @ 3g/kg seeds, • Seeds are deep in 20 "A) salt solution and floating seeds, should be collected and destroyed., 308, , A Competitive Book of Agriculture
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•, , At the time of ear emergence two spray of Mencozeb, A 2, kg/ha, at 3-3 days interval, 3. Smut: Tolyposporium penicillariae, • Affected kernels become green and larger in the beginning, but later turn to black son., •, •, , Seed treatment with Thiram @ 3g/kg seeds, Spray vitavax @ 0.25 %., , Maize, 1. White bud of maize: Zn deficiency, • Apical portion of leaf becomes white., • Apply ZnSO4@ 20-25 kg/ha at sowing time., 2. Charcoal rot: Macrophomina phaseoli, • Avoid water stress after the flowering of the crop., 3. Seed Rot/Seedling Blight: Pythium aphanidermatum., Gram diseases:, I. Fusarium wilt: Fusarium oxysporium f.v. ciceri, • Soil borne, • Most serious in central India., Symptoms:, Stunted growth;, Roots turn black and ultimately decomposed., Yellowing of leaves, Withering of plants and main root turns black., , Management:, •, , Avoid early planting (early sowing of gram protect the crop, from H. armigera but severe infestation of Fusarium wilt), • Grow resistance var. i.e. Avrodhi, • Seed treatment with Bavistin 2g/kg, • Crop rotation and deep sowing, 2. Ascochyta blight: Ascochyta rabid., •, •, •, , Air borne, Most potential disease of North West plains, All plant parts except roots are affected, , Plant Pathology, , 309, , A Competitive Book of Agriculture
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Sorghum, I. Downy mildew: Sclerospora soghi, Symptoms:, • Downey white growth on lower surface with yellowing on, upper surface on young leaves i.e. chlorosis at downy spot, , Management:, • Seed treatment with Agrosan GN, • Spray Mencozeb @ 0.2 %, 2. Other:, • Grain smut: Sphacelotheca sorghi (RPSC-AO exam -2012), • Leaf rust: Puccinia purp urea, • Head smut: Sphacelotheca relliana, portion of entire floral, structure transformed into smutted galls, • Long smut: Tolyposporium enrenbergii, , Arhar, 1. Fusarium wilt: Fusarium oxysporium f. sp. udum, • Most destructive soil borne fungal disease wilting of leaves, and plants, Management:, • Mixed cropping and crop rotation, no chemical control found, effective, 2. Sterility mosaic: sterility mosaic virus, • Vector of sterility mosaic is, Eriophyid mite: Aceria cajani, • It renders the plants sterile by inhibiting flower formation., • Due to viral infection the plants grow luxuriantly, and the, disease is called green plague., , Sojbeart, 1. Yellow mosaic: due to yellow mosaic virus, • Vector is Bemisia tabaci (whitefly), • Foliar spray of Thiomethoxam @,60 gm a.i. /ha, Plant Pathology, , 310, , A Competitive Book of Agriculture
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2. Charcoal rot: Rhizoctonia bataticola, • Reddish black to brown necrotic lesion at crown portion, • Seed treatment with Carbendazim, summer plough ing and, crop rotation., , Groundnut, I. Tikka disease: Cercospora personata & C. arachidichola, Symptoms:, • Small dark brown spots and pre mature leaf shedding., • In case of C. persona/a, brown spots are regular and not more, than 0.6 in diameter but in C. arachidichola, there are, irregular spots of larger diameter., , Management:, • Spray Bavistin @ 0.3%, •, Spray Mencozeb @ 1.5 kg/ha 40 days after sowing, 2. Collar rot & dry root rot: Aspergillus niger, • It produce Aflatoxin in stored kernels., • Symptoms: attack at seedling stage at the base, black spores, are seen at root, , Management:, •, •, •, , Seed treatment with Mencozeb 3g or Bavistin 2g/kg of, , kernels, Soil drenching with Bavistin 0.3 %, Application of Trichoderma viridae @ 4 kg/ha mixed with, 15-20 kg well rotted FYM and subsequently irrigate the field, (it has antagonistic effect on pathogenic fungi)., MiLisfard, , 1. White rust blister: Albugo candida, , Symptoms:, • White or yellow pustules variable sizes & shapes on lower, •, , surface of leaf, Infection covers all parts except roots., , Plant Pathology, , 311, , A Competitive Book of Agriculture
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Management:, • Spray Blitox -50 @ 1.5 kg/ha at 15 days interval., • Seed treatment with Apron 35 SD @ 6 g/kg seeds., • 2 -3 spray Mencozeb @ 2 kg/ha at 20 days intervals., 2. Alternaria blight: Alternaria brasicae, • Symptoms: Concentrate black spots on leaves, stem and pods, • Management: Spray Dithane M-45 @ 2kg/I 000 liter water, , at 15 days intervals starting from 40-45 days after sowing., 3. Downy mildew: Pernospora brassicae, • Yellow & irregular spots on upper surface & white growth on, under surface of leaves malformed inflorescence., , Sugarcane, 1. Red rot: Collectotrichum falcatum, • Most destructive disease in both tropical and subtropical, Ind ia, Symptoms:, • Typical symptoms of red rot are seen inside the stalk i.e., reddened pith which is responsible for quick decline of many, of the sugarcane varieties., • Alcoholic smell from field, Management:, • Sets are deep in 0.25% of mercurial compounds like Agallol, or Aretan for five minute, 2. Grassy shoot of sugarcane: Mycoplama, • Symptoms: Excessive tillering, sprouting of lateral buds., 3. Smut: Ustilago scitaminea, it is also known as `culrnicolous' smut of sugarcane because, it affects the stalk of cane., Severe from April to July, 10% loss in juice, Symptoms:, • Along black whip like structure at the apex of the stalk also, known as 'whip smut' ., 4. Red stripe: Xanthomonas rubriliens, Plant Pathology, , 312, , A Competitive Book of Agriculture
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•, , Long narrow red stripe appear on leaf, only leaves and top, shoots are affected., , RSD (Ratoon Stunt Disease of sugarcane), , 5., •, , Caused by Clavibacter xyli, , •, , It is called `ratoon stunting' because the disase is more, , severe on ratoon crops than on 'plant cane' crop., Other diseases:, •, Gummosis: Xanthomonas vasculorum: the fibro-vascular, becomes red, •, Grassy stunt disease caused by Mycoplama vector is rice, BPH., Sett rot or pineapple disease: Certostmella paradoxa., , •, , rotat •, 1., , Late blight: Phytophthora infestans, •, It is most destructive disease of potato and tomato also., •, Symptoms appear late in season, at the flowering stage., •, Bright brown spots on leaves and irregular patches starts from, leaf tip, later turned in brownish black patches., •, First ground leaves show symptoms; in favorable condition, , entire vegetative parts are killed within a day hence called, blight., , Management:, •, Foliar application of copper oxychloride @ 1.5 kg/ha through, spaying, Spray Mencozeb 2.0 kg/ha.2-3 sprays at 15 days interval., 2. Early blight: Alternaria solani, •, It occurs earlier than the late blight, so named early blight, • Concentric ring or 'target board' appeared on leaf lamina is, most characteristic symptoms, spots are irregularly, •, , distributed., Spray Mencozeb @ 0.2%, Black scurf: Rhyzoctonia solani, , •, 3., , 313, , A Competitive Book of Agriculture
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•, , Symptoms: surface of tubers covered with black incrustations, (Sclerotia of pathogen), growing tips of tuber sprouts are, killed., 4. Wart: Synchytrium endobioticum, • Appearance of tumors or warts on tubers, stems and stolons., 5. Black heart: Due to oxygen starvation., 6. Scab: Streptomyces scabies, , Seasart •, Phyllody: My-coplasma, • Transmitted by leaf hoppers, Symptoms: Green leafy floral parts and profuse branching, Management: Spray Metasystox 1 ml/lit water., 1., , Cottorb, blight/angular leaf spot/black arm: Xantomonas, campestris pv.malvacearum, • Most serious disease of cotton in India, • Angular and water soaked lesion on leaf & stem., • On the stem develops peripheral cracks called 'black arm'., Management:, • Spray a mixer of Streptocyclin + Copper oxychloride 50 +, 250 g/ha, • Seed treatment with Agrimycin, 2. Tirak/bad opening of bolls: Physiological disorder, • Premature defective opening of bolls & shedding of leaves, 1., , Bacterial, , Management:, • Follow late sowing, • Apply extra water at flowering & fruiting in sandy soil., 3. Fusarium wilt: F. monilliform sp. vasinectum., 4. Stenosis/small leaf: Viral, 5., , Plant Pathology, , 314, , A Competitive Book of Agriculture
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Late blight and early blight: Fungal disease., • Burnt like appearance on leaves, Management:, • Spray of Copper oxychloride @ 2 g/liter, , 1., , 2g/liter, • Spray Bacteriomycin @ 0.2 g/liter of water, 2. Leaf curl: Viral, • Transmitted by white flies, , or Mencozeb @, , Management:, •, •, , Acephate 1.5 ml/liter, Acetamiprid @ 60 g a.i. /ha, 3. Blossom end rot: Ca deficiency, 4., , Fruit cracking: Boron deficiency., Brinjail, , Phomopsis blight/fruit rot: Phomopsis vexan, • Soft & watery soaked on fruit, blight on foliage, fruit rot, • Seed treat with Carbendazim @ 1 g/kg of seed, • Spray Bavistin 0.05 %, 2. Little leaf of brinjal: Mycoplama, 1., , CorSiCEIra, , 1. Damping off: Pythium aphaniderntatum lphytoplahora sp., 2. Anthracnose/ripe rot die back: Collectotrichum capsici, 3. Leaf curl: Viral, • Downward cupping/curling of leaves, • Transmitted by thrips and aphids, • Managed by seed treatment with Acetamiprid @ 45 gm a.i., •, , /ha., , Spray of Acephate @ 1.5 ml/liter with Streptocyclin @ 0.15, gm/liter., , Plant Pathology, , 315, , A Competitive Book of Agriculture
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Crucifers, 1., 2., , White blister same as mustard, , Browning of cauliflower: Boron deficiency, , • Brown curd, hollow stem, • Apply Borax @ 10-15 kg/ha in soil or spray 0.2%, 3. Whiptail of cauliflower: Mo deficiency, • Thick, green & leathery leaf and no curd formation., • Apply 1-2 kg sodium or aluminum molybdate, 4. Club -root (finger & toe disease): Plasmodiphora brassicae, • Formed club -shaped roots., , Banana, 1., 2., , Panama wilt: Fusarium oxysporium var. Cubans, Bunchy top: Virus, • Vector is aphid: Pentalonia nigronervosa., , Citrus, 1. Citrus canker: Xanthomonas compestris p.v. citri, • Small brown corky outgrowths on leaves, twinges and fruits., 2. Die-back/wither tip: Collectotrichum gloeosporiodides, 3. Gummosis: Phytophthora palmivora, • Ruptured lengthwise bark, exudes gum, 4. Greening disease: Candidatus Liberobacter, • a gram negative, walled phloem -colonizing bacteria is, , •, , responsible for the destructive citrus -greening disease (earlier, known as mycoplama disease)., In China called as citrus Huanglongbing (HLB) or Yellow, dragon disease., Transmitted by vector asian citrus psylla: Diaphorina curl, , •, • Drench with Tetracycline @ 500 ppm, S. Tristeza: viral, • Vector is aphids: Toxoptera citricida, Plant Pathology, , 316, , A Competitive Book of Agriculture
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Important points:, V Father of nematology: H.C. Bastian., Father of American/modern nematology: N.A. Cobb, • • (abnormal increase in the, Ilyperplasia, number of cells),, symptoms formed b., Meloidogyne, Hypertrophy (abnormal increase in the, size of cells of a, tissue) these symptoms formed by: Heterodera, Mentake disease of rice is caused by: Rice root nematode., The entire names of nematode corrected by Filipjev 1936., Root lesion nematode, Pratylenchus coffee is a serious pest, of coffee in S. India., V Borrowing nematode Rodopholus sitnilis' cause severe, damage to fruit crops, spices and it. s responsible for, 'spreading decline' of citrus in Florida., ✓, Citrus nematode cause 'slow decline & die back 'of citrus., •, Reniform nematode is as second important nematode of, vegetables after root -knot., Curvature of nematode body rsl always towards ventral side, except in case of Dorsella which curved in a 'C' shape, , ✓, ,, , towards dorsal side., , ✓, , All the natural openings of nematode are situated in ventral, , •, , side, Amphids: Paired chemosensory organ, located near lip, , •, ✓, •, ✓, , region., Deirid: are paired structures apposite to excretory pore and, are mechanoreceptors in function., Circulator), and respiratory system are absent in, , nematodes. (JRF-2011), Number of moulting in nematode generally four (it means, nematode have four larval stages): JRF- 2011, In plant parasitic nematodes the first molt (J1) occurs within, the eggs and stylet bearing 2" stage larvae (J2) are released., , Nematology, , 317, , A Competitive BOLA of Agriculture
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•, , Anguina tritici undergoes quiescent in, , •, , Years., In Ditylenchus dipsaii the J4 (fourth) stage undergoes, , ✓, , quiescence., Majority of the plant pathogenic nematodes belong to class-, , •, , •, •, , •, ✓, , •, ✓, •, , J2, , for up to 28.32, , Secernentea. and order Tylenchida., In Tylenchids cuticle is marked with transverse striation, known as striae these are deep in criconematidae and called, spine/scale, and are useful for taxonomic importance., Only hypodermis/Epidermis is metabolic active layer., In tylenchids: Present stoma or baccal cavity or stylet,, hence tylenchids named stomostylet, it used for piercing into, plant cells., Stomostylet developed from fusion of walls of baccal cavity., In some nematodes rectal glands three in female and six in, males are present: they are responsible for production of, gelatinous matrix in which eggs are laid. It is normall}, feature of Dorylaintida but it has also been reported in, Meloidogyne., Aphelenchoides sp. associated with strawberry disease, known as 'spring crimp' and 'summer crimp'., Root rots" cause on potato tuber by: Ditvlenchus destructor"., Lesion & necrosis:" caused by Pratylenchus & Rodopholus, First journal of nematology in the world was: Nematologia, , Unit -1, Nematologv, Study of free living and plant pancAtic nematodes is known as, , nentatology., Nematode: It derived from two Creek worlds:, • Nema =Thread, • Oides =, ike, Nem,,,,,,gy, , 318, , A Competitive Book of Agriowe-c.
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tinit -3, History of nematology, First time PPN mentioned by William Shakespeare in his, 'Love's Labor Lost' act IV, Scene -3 and wrote in 'Sowed, cockles reaped no corn'., 1743: J.T. Needham: discovered first PPN Anguina tritici and it, was named as 'Vibrio tritici, 1855: Berkeley, reported root knot nematode (Meloidogyne spp.), from roots of green house cucumber in England., 1857: Kuhn reported stem & bulb nematode Di0 ,1enchus dipsaii., , 1594., , 1859:, 1865:, 1871:, 1884:, 1907:, 1933:, , 1937:, 1943:, 1945:, 1958:, , Schacht, reported sugar beet cyst nematode (Heterodera, schachtii)., H.C. Bastian, he known as Father of Nematology and wrote, monograph of the Anguillulidae, Kuhn first experimented CS2 for control of Sugar beet cyst, nematode., J.G. Deman, gave "Biometry' and taxonomic monograph, (Morphometry)., N.A. Cobb, known as Father of American (modern), Nematology., Tom Godey: He published two books.,, 1. Plant parasitic nematodes and disease they cause in, 1933., 2. Soil and fresh water nematodes in 1951., Chitwood & Chitwood wrote a book: An Introduction, to Netnatology'., Carter discovered nematicidal properties of DD. (JRF- 09), Christie, discovered nematicidal properties of EDB., , Hewitt, Raski and Goheen, first reported the transmission, of viruse by nematode (Xiphinema index) transmitting .grape, vine fan leaf virus disease in USA., 1961: G. Thorne wrote book 'Principle of Nematoloe, known as Bible of nematology)., Nernarofogy, , 320, , A Competitive Book of Agricofruce
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1', , It first feeds as ectoparasitically & after three moults it, , becomes endoparasitic., .4 Some species of Anguina produces galls in leaf surface for, e.g. A. tumafaciens on Cynodon transvalense.(JRF41)., Symptoms:, • Seedling leaves are twisted and crinkled., •, , Seedling may stunted and die., , •, , Plant show profuse tellering and infested plant produce ears, , almost 30-40 days before healthy plants., • Finally seeds are replaced by galls., • The most important character of this nematode is the, conversion of grains in to cockles or galls., Management:, • Salt floatation: Use of 20 % salt (brine) solution for, washing of seeds is very effective control method., • Hot water treatment: 54 °C for 10 minutes., • Crop rotation also useful method to escape infestation of, nematode., • No resistant variety of wheat are found against this, nematodes, 2. Cereal cyst nematode: Heterodera avenae, .4 Cause "Molya disease' in wheat and barley., • Heteros = different and deras = skin means different types of, skin & lemon shaped female., .4 Females have zig-zag pattern or lace like pattern on body, known as cyst wall pattern., ,7 Cyst nematodes: Includes genus, Heterodera and Globodera, both have unique character of retention eggs & larvae, within mature female body which turn into brown or black, hard body after its death; that why known as cysts., • Pigeonpea cyst nematode (H. cajam) also infest other pulses, 1 Heterodera oryzicola (paddy cyst nematode) serious pests of, rice in Kerala, Orissa, Haryana in upland rice growing areas., Damage:, Nematology, , 325, , A Competitive Book of Agriculture
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• .12is infective stage, • ETL = 3 eggs/g of soil., Management:, • Crop rotation with mustard, chick pea is effective control, method., • Deep ploughing is destroyed quiescent eggs of nematodes., • Grow resistant varieties e.g. for wheat: Raj MR -1, • For barley: RD 2052, RD-2035and Rajkiran. (JRF-11), 3. Potato cyst nematode: Globodera rostochiensis., • Golden nematode of potato first reported by FGW Jones, in 1961 from Nilgiri Hills (TN)., ✓ It feed pericycle cortex with results formation of nurse, cells i.e. Syncytium develop which provides nutrients to, female throughout development., Management:, • Legislative methods: Domestic quarantine was introduced, against Globodera, not carry infested potato tubers without, phytosanitory certificate issued from Nilgiri to other part of, country. (JRF-06), • Resistant variety: Kufri swarna is resistant to Globodera, sp., • Fumigants: Methyl bromide exposer for 5-6 hrs., 4. Root -knot nematode: Meloidogyne spp., ✓ Means melon or apple shaped female., ✓ First reported by Barkley 1855 from cucumber., • In India it reported b) Barber in 1901 on tea (Kerala)., ✓ In meloidogyne the Perineal pattern present on vulva -anus area, which is helpful in species identification (JRF-07), 1 Eggs lay in gelatinous matrix (200-500 eggs)., V Sex differentiates in late second juvenile stage (J2).where the, the, genital primordial is 'V' shaped in female and shaped in male., 1 Second -stage juvenile (J2) is infective stage in Meloidogyne., (JRF -11), , Nematology, , 326, , A Competitive Book of Agriculture
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1, , 'Spike tail' in Meloidogyne: it is succeeding moulting of second,, third avw-i, , 1, , •, Li stage juveniles, , _ _, , ot Meloidogyne spp., Sexual reversal: In Meloidogyne some time under, adverse, , conditions male changed in to female., Classification:, •, M. incognita:, , Present throughout India on vegetables., , •, , M. exigua:, , Found on coffee in Karnataka., , •, , M. hapla:, M. arenaria:, , Restricted to temperate parts (on hilly area)., , •, , It is a serious pest of ground nut in Gujarat., , (JRF-11), •, •, , M. brevicauda: Found on tea in Assam, M. graminicola: Found on rice in eastern part of country, , (JRF-2010), Symptoms:, •, The reaction to the entrance of the larvae is the development, o f hypertrophy (enlargement of cell size) of cortical cells and, formed 'Giant cell from which it derives food., • Nematode secrete protease enzyme results break down, protein into amino acid (tryptophan) which is a 'precursor, of IAA' is important and responsible for creating hormonal, imbalance at site of reaction. Due to excess IAA formation at, feeding site cause gall/knot on roots., n;ffpr,-•nise between root knot and rhizobium nodules:, _Rhizobium nodules, Root knot, In, case, of, meloidogyne Rhizobium nodules are spongy, infestation root knots are hard consistency, found along side of, roots as side appendages, in consistency and deep seated, Soft and can be easily detached, They don't easily rubbed off, from roots, Management:, • Deep ploughing., Grow resistant varieties:, • For tomato Hissar !alit, SL- 120, Nematology, , 327, , A Competitive Book of Agriculture
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•, 1, , It is reported by Butler, 1913, It causes `Ufra' disease, ✓, Infestation mainly in deep water paddy., Symptoms:, • Twisting of leaf & leaf sheath., • The symptoms of Ufra are well noticed in two months old, crops., b. Stem and bulb nematode: Ditylenchus dipsaii, V By infestation of this nematode onion suffers heavy losses as, it cause "onion bloat" disease., c. Potato rot nematode: Ditylenchus destructor, ✓, It found in temperate region of Europe & N. America, ✓, , Cause 'rots' on potato roots., d. Mushroom nematode: Ditylenchus myceliophagus, ✓, This nematode was first reported that to cause damage on, mushroom, ✓, It is also found in India., Leaf and bud nematode: Aphelenthoides sp., ✓, Also known as foliar nematode, a. White tip or rice leaf nematode: Aphelenchoides besseyi, ✓, This nematode associated with serious epidemic of rice in, MP., It feed actoparasitically, Humidity favors infestation., This is seed borne nematode, b. Chrysanthemum/foliar nematode: Aphelenchoides ritzemabosi, ✓, Known as Spring crimp or straw berry nematode, c. Aphelenchoides composticola:, • Important nematode of mushroom and known as mycophauus, •, •, •, , nematode, 10. Red ring nematode: Rhadinaphelenchus cocophilus, ,f Cause serious disease of coconut palm is called 'red -ring'., ✓ This nematode is transmitted mechanically through palm, weevil, Rhynocophorus palmarum., Nematology, , 329, , A Competitive Book of Agriculture
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a., , •, , 11. Root lesion nematode: PraVlenchus sp., Also referred as 'Meadow nematode'., , ✓, , 12. Rice root nematode: Hirschrmunniella sp., This nematode responsible for causing `Mantek' disease of, , I, •, , rice in 1949, Infective stage: all Juveniles (J) and adult also. (JRF-2011), It can be managed by soil treatment of Carbofuran @ 4kg, , a.i/ha before sow ing., 13. Burrowing nematode: Rodopholus sp., Root and rhizome rot of banana : Rodopholus similis, ✓, It is commonly found in India., ✓, Other names are 'banana decline' and 'black head disease, •, , 'of banana., This nematode also helpful in causing panama wilt of, banana in association with fungus Fusarium oxysporium var., cube use, It is caused 'Yellow disease' of pepper., , ✓, b. Rodopholus citrophilus:, ✓, Responsible for causing 'spreading decline' of citrus in, Florida, USA, 14. False root knot nematode: Naccobus sp. (JRF-11), ✓, Develops hypertrophy, 15. Ring nematode: Criconema sp., ✓, It has large annuli., 16. Pin nematode: Paratylenchus sp., ✓ This is smallest plant parasitic nematode with size of < 0.5, MM., 17. Dagger nematode: Xiphinema sp., • Presence of characteristic sword like stylet, ✓, It transmit fan leaf virus of grape virus., Unit -8, Management of nematodes, 1. Chemical control:, Nemotology, , 330, , A Competitive Book of Agriculture
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cL PLANT BRUM/NCI fr rIENETICS, Important points:, Father of plant tissue culture: G. Haber land, Father of Botany: Theophrastus, Father of Zoology: Aristotle, Father of Genetics: G.J. Mendel, The longest mitotic phase is: Prophase, Segregation occurs during: Meiosis only, The most abundant form of RNA is known as: t- RNA (80%), Bacteriophages are: Single strain DNA (virus), In mitochondria found only 70 s types of: Ribosomes, Alternative form of a gene is known as: Allele, Tift 60 is an important source of male sterity in: Sorghum, Often cross pollinated crops are: Cotton, sorghum, The theory of inheritance was proposed by: G. Mendel, The shortest phase of all the mitosis phase is: Anaphase, The site of protein synthesis is: Ribosome, Physical basis of life is: Protoplasm, Onion is a modified form of: Leaf, Onion & garlic are example of: Bulb, Edible part of apple: Thalamus, Edible part of mango: Mesocarp, Edible part of coconut: Endosperm, An agent that causes gene mutation mutation is called as:, , V, 1, ✓, ✓, ✓, ✓, ✓, ✓, ✓, ✓, •, ✓, ✓, ✓, ✓, ✓, ✓, ✓, ✓, ✓, ✓, ✓, ,(, ✓, , Mutagen, Most mutant tolerant are: Polyploids, Characters which express in one sex only is: Sex limited, , traits, •/ RNA synthesis is in which organ: Nucleolus, V The inflorescence of banana is known as: Spud&, ✓ The theory of natural selection was proposed by: Charles, ✓, , Darwin, The theory of acquired characteristics was proposed by:, Lamarck, , Plant breeding & genetics, , 334, , A Competitive Book of Agriculture
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Single gene affecting more than one character is known as:, Pleiotropy, Garlic & turmeric are examples of modified stem of:, , ✓, , Rhizome, The structure of chromosome can be best observed during:, Metaphase, , ✓, •, , Ribosomes are small cellular particles which are the sites of:, Protein synthesis, , ✓, , Closest form of inbreeding possible in self- incompatible, sp. is: Sib- mating, Physical chromosomal exchange (crossing over) takes, place in: Pachytene, Re -discovery of Mendel laws in 1900 by: de Vries, Carl, Correns & tschemark, Only about 0.1% of the induced mutations are useful in crop, improvement., The enzymes associated with Krebs cycle are also present in, the: Matrix, Life was first originated in water the theory of genes in the, chromosomes was introduced by: Morgan, In 1944, Avery, Mac Leod and McCarty demonstrated that, DNA was the genetic material., In CAM plants transpiration is negligible since stomata are, closed during the day., Examples of prokaryotes: cells of Mycoplama, Bacteria and, Blue green algae., Cytoplasm: includes all the structures of outside the nucleus., Protoplasm: Cytoplasm + Nucleus., Centrosome is present only in animal cell., Openings are left at plants between the adjacent cells known, as plasmodesma and thread like lining between two cells is, known as Plasmodesmata., A common crop of natural auto-tetraploids grown in, India is: Potato, , •(, •, .7, •, ✓, 1', I, 1, 1, 1, 1, , v, , Plant breeding & genetics, , 335, , A Competitive Book of Agriculture
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✓, , Cell wall of fungi is chiefly made up of: Chitin, Plant showing less than 5% cross pollination is, considered as: Self pollinated, , •, , A variety resistant to more than one race of pathogen is, due to: Horizontal resistance, , Type of male sterility used in hybrid seed production in, , 1, V, 1, ✓, •, 1, 1, •, ▪, ✓, 1, 1, 1, I, , pearl millet: Cytoplasmic genetic male sterility, An individual having both male and female reproductive, organs is known as: Hermaphrodite, Aseptic conditions means: Pathogen free environment, In 1900, potato moth (Phthorimaea operculella) came, in to India from: Italy, Pedigree: record of ancestry of an individual selected, plant for its various generations, The study of interactions between antigens and, antibodies is called: Serology, Transfer of genetic material from one cell to another cell, by means of viral vector: Transduction, NaOH test used for testing the: Karnal bunt disease of, wheat., PCR techniques provides: Several copies of specific DNA, sequence, Science of identifying the sequence of DNA in species:, Genomics., The lines are homozygous and homogenous in nature called, as: Pure line, Autotriploidy found in: Banana, , If the development of fruit without fertilization the process, called: Parthenocapry, Repeated crossing of hybrid progeny back to one of its, parents called: Back cross, , Plant breeding & genetics, , 336, , A Competitive Book of Agriculture
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The Tifi 23-A and Kafir- 60 are the important sources of male, sterility in pearl millet and sorghum respectively., Ethidium bromide has been found effective in inducing, cytoplasmic male sterility in pearl millet and barley., sN I Organ, , Discovered/Named by, , Living cell, , 1, 2, , Antony von Leeuwenhoek 1723, , I Cell wall, , Robert Hook, 1665, , Nucleus, , Robert Brown, 1851, , Nucleolus, , Fontana, 1781, seen nucleolus, , Cell theory, , But termed by Bowman, 1840, Scheleiden & Schvvann 1839, , 6, 7, , I Mitotic cell division, I Meosis, , described by van Beneden in 1883, , 8, , I Plasmodesmata, , E. Strasburger, 1901, , 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, , Fleming 1879, , Protoplasm, , J. E. Purkinje 1840, Protoplast, Hanstein, 1880, Plasmalemma, J.Q. Plowe 1931, Unit membrane concept of cell ' David Robertson 1962, membrane, Singer & Nicholson, 1972, Fluid mosaic model, K. R. Porter, 1945, I Endoplasmic reticulum, E. Haeckel, 1865, I Plastid, A.F.W. Schimper, I Ch lorop last, C., Benda, 1867, Mitochondria, Camilo Golei, Golei body, Palade 1955, RNA discovered by, First time reported by Palade 1953, Ribosome, But named by Haguenau in 1958), De Duve, Lysosomes, T. Boveri, I Centrosome, E. Strasburger, 1875, I Chromosome, observed by, Waldeyer, 1888, Term chromosomes given by, Double helical structure of Watson & Crick 1953, DNA was given by, Re ,mbinant, DNA, technology/DNA sequencing, Plant breeding & genetics, , 337, , Berg, Gilbert & Anger, , A Competitive Book of Agriculturr
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27, , Term, linkage, determination, , 28, 29, , Linkage theory, , &, , sex, , Term pure line, phenotype &, genotype, Chromosomal, heredity, , 30, 31, , theory, , of, , X-ray as physical mutant by, Bacterial transformation, First inter -specific cross was, made by, Centers of origin were first, given by, Term heterosis was coined by, RNA was first synthesized by, The term genetics was coined, by, One Gene one Enzyme, Hypothesis, Operon Hypothesis, Mutation first defined by, , 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, , Batson, , --, , T.H. Morgan in 1910, W. Johannsen, , —, _, , T. Morgan, , Muller, Avery, Mac leod & McCarty, Thomas Fairchild, Vavilon, _, Shu11,1914, , S. Ochoa in 1969, W. Bateson, Beadle and Tatum in 1914, Jacob and Monod in 1961, Hugo de vries, , Pre-mendelian heredity theories:, •, ✓, ./, */, ✓, , Theory of Epigenesis: Wolf, 1738-94, Theory of acquired character: Lamarck, 1744, Theory of pangenesis: C'. Darwin, 1809, Germ plasm theory: Weisman, 1889, Chromosomal theory of inheritance: Sutton & Boveri, 1903, , Organism used in genetics:, •, •, •, , Insect:, , •, , Plant:, , Bacteria:, Fungi:, , Mont breeding & genetics, , E. coli, , Neurospora crassa, Drosophila melongester, Maize, Pea, , 338, , A Competitive Book of Agriculture, , _
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Unit -1, , •, , The Cell, Cell: is the structural and functional unit of all living organisms,, except viruses., The size of cells:, • The smallest cell size ranges from 0.2 to 5.0 µ (microns), , in bacteria to up to largest 75 mm in the case of ostrich, eggs., Cell Structure:, 1. Cell wall:, •, Plant cells are surrounded by a nonliving and rigid coat, called cell wall. It secreted & maintained by protoplasm., •, , The main functions of cell walls are to provide plant cells, a definite shape, mechanical support and strength to, tissues and organs., Cell wall is differentiated into three parts:, a. Middle Lamella: The walls of immediate neighbour cells are, joined by middle lamella. This is composed mainly of pectin, (mainly in the form of Ca2+& Mg2 salts)., b. Primary cell wall: It is deposited after the formation of, middle lamella. Its main constituents are hemicelluloses (53, %) and cellulose (30 %). Cells in meristematic tissues contain, only' primary cell wall., c. Secondary cell wall: It is the inner most layer of wall. It, composed mainly of cellulose., 2. Plasma lemma or cell membrane:, • The membrane enclosing cytoplasm of a cell is known as, plasma lemma or plasma membrane., • It composed of lipid (60 cY0) and proteins (40 %)., • It acts as a permeability barrier, and acts as vehicle for, the transport of substances from one organelle to another., 3. Cytoplasm:, • The substances, except nucleus, surrounded by the plasma °, lemma is known as cytoplasm., Plant breeding & genetics, , 339, , A Competitive Book of Agriculture
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It may contain the following structures:a. Endoplasmic Reticulum: An extensive network of membrane.., enclosed spaces are known as endoplasmic reticulum (ER)., • ER is not found in RBCs, eggs or embryonic cell and, prokaryotic cells., • ER is grouped in to two categories:, (i) Smooth ER: Both outer and inner are regular and smooth. No, protein synthesis is takes place in smooth ER. It provides the, structural base for synthesis of certain type of steroids i.e., Cholesterol, progesterone and testosterone., (ii) Rough ER: The outer surfaces of membranes have a rough, appearance due to the attachment of ribosomes. The rough ER is, mainly composed of cisterns and is found in cells actively, involved in protein synthesis., Functions:, • It provides the structural base for synthesis of protein, • Provides channel for the transport of materials among cell, organelles., b. Ribosomes: These are particles of about 200 A in diameter and, are composed of RNA and protein., • Ribosomes are synthesized and assembled in nucleolus., • Ribosomes are site of protein synthesis., On the basis of their sedimentation ribosomes are classified in to:(i) 80 S sizes: In plants, they dissociate into 60 S and 40 S subunits., (ii)70 S size: They are made up of 50 S and 30 S subunits (Found in, mitochondria and plastid)., Structural differences between eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells, SN, 1, , Eukaryotic cells, All membrane -bound structures, eg. ER, Mitochondria, Golgi, bodies, Lysosomes„ Vacuoles, etc. are present., True nucleus is present, Nucleolus is present in the, , Prokaryotic cells, All membrane bound structures are, absent., , Nucleus lacks nuclear membrane, Nucleolus is absent, , nucleus, Plant breeding & genetics, , 340, , A Competitive Book of Agriculture
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Both 70 S and 80 S ribosomes, are present, Cytoplasm has microtubules, , 4, 5, , Eg. Cells of higher plants and, animals, , 6, , c., , Only 70 S type of ribosomes are, present, , Cytoplasm, doesn't, have, microtubules, Eg. Bacterial cells, fungi etc., , any, , Golgi body: Also called endomembrane system because it, associated with ER & Lysosomes. Provides site of synthesis of, , lytic enzymes and supports cell wall formation., d. Lysosomes: Produced from the Golgi complex and are site of, hydrolytic enzymes (mainly acid phosphatise). Lysosomes, common in animal cell but also present in plant cell. Main, function of Lysosomes is autolysis; known as suicidal bags, e., , f., , g., h., , i., , (digest cell itself)., Peroxisome: Mainly occur in photosynthesing cells of higher, plants and concerned with glycolate metabolism or, photorespiration of C 3 plants., Spherosomes: These are site of hydrolytic enzymes and are, found in plant cells only; they don't occur in animal cells., Contains upto 98 % lipid; their function may be in lipid storage., Glyoxysomes: Concerned with glyoxylate metabolism and help, in conversion of lipids of germinating seeds into carbohydrates., Vacuole: plant cells have one or more vacuoles of variable size., It contains cell sap and large part of cytoplasm upto 90 % is, occupied by a large vacuole. Vacuoles are surrounded by a unit, membrane; the membrane is referred to as tonoplast., Centriole: these are confined to animal cells. And aren't found in, , plant cells., 4. Mitochondria:, • These are site of krebs cycle and electron transport chain., • Originated by fusion of pre-existing mitochondria. An average, , cell may have 200 to 800 mitochondria., •, , Mitochondria, , are, , surrounded, , tty, , two, , concentric, , unit, , membranes; named outer membrane and inner membrane., Plant breeding & genetics, , 341, , A Competitive Book of Agriculture
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•, , The respiratory complex contains three large enzyme, complexes (i.e. NADH dehydrogenase complex, b -c l complex, and cytochromes oxidase complex) these enzyme complexes, are embedded in the inner membrane., • The infolds of inner membrane are known as crystae, • The crystae grei..ly increase the area of inner membrane and, have oxysomes known as electron transport particles (ETP)., • The space on the inside of the inner membrane is known as, matrix. It contains a variety of transport proteins that make it, selectively permeable to molecules metabolized in the matrix., In addition to proteins it carries out the oxidation reactions of, respiratory chain, i.e. the electron transport chain and ATP, synthesis in the matrix. The respiratory chain carries out, oxidative phosphorylation that generates most of the ATP in, the animal cells, so it named as power house of cell., 5. Chloroplasts:, •, , Actual site of photosynthesis., • Chloroplast contains chlorophyll which imparts the, characteristic green colour to plants., • The membrane free space enclosed by membranes of, chloroplast is referred to as stroma., • Within the stroma are embedded about 40-80 grana. Each, granum contains 5-25 flat cisternae stacked on top of each, other are called thylakoids. It has quantosome with 250-300, photosynthetic units., In addition to chloroplast, plant cells contain two more type of, , plastids called as:, a. Leucoplasts; are colour less plastid and function in the, storage of starch, protein and fats., b. Chromoplasts; contain pigments other than chlorophyll e.g.,, phycocyanin, phucoxanthin etc., 6. Nucleus:, • Nucleus contains chromosomes which control functions of, cell by having almost all the genetic information of a cell., Plant breeding & genetics, , 342, , A Competitive Book of Agriculture
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•, , It produces ribosomes, tRNA, mRNA, and certain other, RNAs., , Unit -2, •, , Cell division, , The process of formation of new cells from the pre-existing, cells is referred to as cell division., , Two types:, 1. Mitosis:, • Cell division in which one cell gives rise to two cells of, genetically identical to the cell which produced them eg., occurrence in somatic cells responsible for vegetative growth., 2. Meiosis:, • Cell division in which one cell with two set of chromosomes, gives rise to four cells with one set of chromosomes each eg., its occurrence in gamete formation and responsible for, sexual reproduction., 1. Mitosis:, • It is the process by which a cell divides into two daughter, cells, each having a nucleus with sets of chromosomes, exactly identical to the parent cell., Cell cycle:, • Divided in to Interphase, Mitosis and Cytokinesis., A. Interphase:, It is the longest stage of cell cycle., •, Further divided into three sub stages., a. G1 (first gap):, • Pre -DNA replication phase, • Protein & RNA synthesis takes place, b. S (synthesis, DNA):, • DNA synthesis takes place, c. 6 2 (second gap):, • Post -DNA replication phase, • RNA & protein particularly component of, microtubules synthesis., Mont breeding & genetics, , 343, , A Competitive Book of Agriculture
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B. Mitotic phase:, a. Prophase:, • In mitotic cell division small sub units of prophase are, absent., • Appearance of definite thread -like structures in nuclei., • Chromosomes become condensed., b. Metaphase:, • Disappearance of nucleolus., • Appearance of spindle apparatus., • Chromosomes arranged in equatorial plate., a, Shortest and thickest state of chromosomes., • Chromosomes are clearly visible at metaphase., c. Anaphase:, • Chromatids separate at centrosomes and move, towards opposite sides., • Smallest form of mitosis., d. Telophase:, • Nucleolus reappears., C. Cytokinesis:, •7 It is complete by the end of Telophase., At the equatorial plate, membranous elements of ER and, products of Golgi bodies organize into the phragmoplast, gives rise to cell plate and subsequently to middle, lamella., 2. Meiosis:, • Meiotic cell division was first described by van Beneden in, 1883 in the round worm., • Meiotic division of one somatic (2n) cell gives rise to four, haploid (n) daughter cells., ✓, The reduction in chromosomes number of the daughter cells, is mainly due to a single S phase followed by two successive, I, , nuclear divisions., Hence, during meiosis chromosomes replicate only once., while the nuclei divide twice., , Plant breeding & genetics, , 344, , A Competitive Book of Agriculture
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Meiosis, , I, , takes, , place, , during, , gamete/spore, , formation., , Therefore it is confined to reproductive cells., First meiotic division:, 1 Results in reduction of chromosomes numbers to just half of, the mother cell, 1 It is also referred to as reductional division, 1 It consists of four different phases as:, A. First prophase:, • This stage is the longest in duration and divided into five sub, stages., Laptotene:, • Chromosome condensation so that they visible as fine, threads., • RNA synthesis, b. Zygotene:, • The main event is synapsis; pairing between, homologous chromosomes., c. Pachytene:, • The main events that occur during Pachytene are as, follows., (i) Bivalent: Haploid (n) pair of chromosomes, (ii) Tetrad: Each bivalent has four chromatids as strands,, hence bivalents are said to be in four strand or tetrad, , a., , stage., , (iii)Crossing over: Interchange of parts between non sisters, chromatids of chromosomes during meiotic prophase., d. Diplotene: in this stage occurs chaismata., • Chaismata: attachment of homologous chromosomes to, each other., e. Diakinensis:, • It begins after complete termilization of chaismata., , Plant breeding & genetics, , 345, , A Competitive Book of Agriculture
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Nucleic acid: Contains many nucleotides, Nucleotides: It consist of nucleoside and phosphoric acid., 6. Nucleoside: Contains sugar + nitrogenous base, 7. Nitrogenous base: Two types Purine (A, G) and pyramidene (T,, C or Uracil in RNA)., 1. RNA (Ribose Nucleic Acid):, • It is found in cytoplasm as well as in nucleus., •, It is generally involved in protein synthesis and act as genetic, material for all plants viruses (e.g.TMV contains ss-RNA), except cauliflower mosaic viruses which contain ds-DNA., Types of RNA:, a. Messenger RNA (m-RNA):, •, It carries the genetic information present in the DNA., • Forms about 5-10% of the total RNA present in Cell., b. Transfer RNA (t -RNA):, • Also known as soluble RNA (s -RNA), • It carries amino acids to the site of protein synthesis., • It forms 10-15% of total RNA present in cell., c. Ribosomal RNA (r-RNA):, , 4., 5., , •, , Most stable type of RNA and is found associated with, , •, , ribosome., It forms about 80% of the total cell RNA., , 2. DNA (De-oxy ribose Nucleic Acid):, • It is a double stranded helix made up from many nucleotides., • DNA is present in nucleus, mitochondria and chloroplast., • It encode genetic information, serve as the template for DNA, replication and transcription., Unit -4, , Chromosomal aberration, • Any change which alters the normal structure of a, chromosome is known as structural chromosomal aberration., Types of structural changes:, a. Deletion (deficiency):, Plant breeding & genetics, , 347, , A Competitive Book of Agriculture
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•, •, , Loss of a segment of a chromosome., It plays an important role in species formation and releasing, variability through mutations., • Deletions are important cytological tools for mapping genes., b. Duplication (repeat):, • A chromosome segment present in more than two copies in, •, •, •, •, , the same nucleus., It results in addition of one or more genes to a chromosome., Duplications are less harmful than detection., , They don't reduce the viability of an individual, Duplications lead to addition of some genes in population., c. Translocation:, • One way or reciprocal transfer of segments between non, homologous chromosomes is known as translocation., • Translocation alters the chromosome size, chromosome, number thus play important role in the formation of species, • They are useful tools in breeding programmes for transfer of, desirable characters from one species to another., • Phenotype effect of translocation in human Down syndrome, (Mongolism) can arise in the progeny of an individual, heterozygous for a translocation involving chromosomes, number 21., d. Inversion:, • It refers to structural change in a chromosome in which a, segment is oriented in a reverse order., • Gene order is changed in the inverted segment of a, chromosome., , •, , Unit -5, Genome, , A basic or monoploid set of chromosomes of an individual is, , called genome., Monoploid:, , Plant breeding & genetics, , 348, , A Competitive Book of Agriculture
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•, , Contains a single chromosome set and are characteristically, , sterile., A monoploid can be haploid but all haploid can't be, monoploid., Haploid: Single set of chromosomes (denotes by 'n'), Uses of haploids:, •, Used for development of pure lines, ✓, Disease resistance, •, Development of inbred lines and, 1 Production of aneuploid, •, , Polyploidy:, •, , Presence of more than two genomes in an individual is, known as polyploidy., •, It is of two types:, 1. Auto polyploidy:, ✓, If all the genomes present in an individual are identical, it is, called autopolyploid., ✓, In many species, auto polyploids show an increase in vigour, and size this phenomenon is known as' gigantism., I, a., , It includes auto triploids (3X), tetraploids (4X), penta (5X), and other polyploidy., , Autotriploids:, • Having three set of homologues chromosomes., • Autotriploids are generally highly sterile due to defective, , gamete formation. But triploids of some species are highly, fertile eg. spinach (Spinacea aleracea)., • Triploids are useful only in those plant species which, propagate asexually like banana, sugarcane, and apple., (i) Banana: Mostly cultivated varieties of banana are triploids, , and seedless., , (ii)Water melons: The triploid water melons are seedless and, have been commercially grown in Japan., (iii) Sugar beets: produce larger roots and more sugar contents, , than diploids., Plant breeding & genetics, , 349, , A Competitive Book of Agriculture
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Autotetraploids:, • They have four copies of the same species., • Tetraploids are usually very stable and fertile because pairing, , b., , •, , partners are available during meiosis., E.g. Rye, grasses, alfalfa, berseem (var. Pusa giant),, groundnut, , and, , potato, , are, , well, , known, , example, , of, , autotetraploids., Allopolyploidy:, • Allopolyploids contain two or more distinct genomes, which, are derived from different species., • Allopolyploidy can be developed by interspecific crosses and, fertility is restored by chromosome doubling with colchicine, treatment., •, It found in about 50 % of crop plants., • Polyploidy is mainly induced treatment with a chemical, known as Colchicine., • Examples of Polyploids i.e. wheat; the common bread wheat, (T. aestivum) is an allohexaploid and tobacco, brassica,, cotton etc, are allotetraploid., 3. Aneuploids: a loss or gain of one or few chromosomes as, compared to the somatic chromosome number of a species is, known as aneuploidy., Aneuploids are following types:, a. Monosomic:, • An individual lacking one chromosome from a diploid set is, called monosomic and this condition is known as monosomy., • Monosomic = 2n — 1, • Double monosomic = 2n -1 - 1, b. Nullisomic:, • The absence of a chromosomes pair from a diploid set is, , 2., , termed as nullisomic., • Nullisomics = 2n - 2, e. Trisomics:, , Plant breeding & genetics, , 350, , A Competitive Book of Agriculture
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•, , An individual having one extra chromosome in the diploid set, of chromosomes known as trisomics., • Trisomic = 2n + 1, f. Tetrasomics:, • An individual having one pair of extra chromosome in diploid, complement is known as tetrasomics., • Tetrasomics = 2n +2, Aneuploidy in man:, • One of the common syndromes associated with aneuploidy is, the Down's syndrome., •, •, , 1., 2., 3., , 4., , 5., , It is due to the trisomy for chromosome 21., It is also known as 'mongolism' suffered persons have short, stature about 120 cm., , Unit-6, Classical genetics, Alleles: The various forms of a gene are called alleles., Gamete: Gamete refers to a sexual unit., Contrasting characters: The individual plant features with, marked phenotypic difference are known as contrasting, characters or traits e.g. Red and white flower colour, yellow, and green seed coat colour., Back cross: The crossing of F 1with one of its parents is called, back cross. Back cross play important role to development, disease resistance in plants, Test cross: Crossing of F1 with of its recessive parents is called, test cross., , 6. Top cross: A cross between an inbred line and an open pollinated, , variety also known as inbred varieties cross., , Mendalian laws:, 1. The Law of Segregation:, • The two alleles of a gene present in the F i do not contaminate, each other; they separate and pass into different gametes in, , Plant breeding & genetics, , 351, , A Competitive Book of Agriculture
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•, , their original form producing two different types of gametes, in equal frequencies., The term 'Law of purity of gametes' also used to describe, this law., , 2. Law of independent assortment:, • This law states that when two pairs of gene enter in F1, , combination, both of them have their independent dominant, effect., , Gene:, • Smallest and functionally part of genetic material., • An alternative form of gene called allele., Allele:, • When a gene has two alternative forms called alleles., Multiple allele:, • The many allele of a single gene are called multiple alleles, • In the case of multiple alleles, only the monohybrid ratio is, observed in the F 2 generation., • These control same character, • No crossing over in the multiple allelism., Example of multiple allele:, • Fur colour in rabbits, • Wing type in drosophila, • Eye colour in drosophila, • AB & 0 blood group in human, Pseudo alleles:, , • Govern different expression of the same character., • They exhibit cis -trans position effect., Types of gene interaction:, • Typical di -hybrid ratio for a single trait:, • Duplicate gene action:, • Complementary gene action:, " Supplementary gene action:, • Inhibitory gene action:, • Masking gene action:, Plant breeding & genetics, , 352, , 9:3:3:1, , 15:1, 9:7, 9:3:4, , 3:3, 1 2:3: 1, , A Competitive Book of Agriculture
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•, •, , Polymeric gene action:, 9:6:1, Additive gene action:, 1 :4:6:4: I, Antigen:, • An antigen is a molecule of immunogenic, which specifically, interacts with an antibody, Antibody:, • An immunogen is a molecule, which when introduced into, the system of an animal, induces the production of a class of, proteins, known as antibodies., • Antibodies belong to a class of proteins called, immunoglobulins., , lir, 1. Mutation:, , Unit -7, Sudden heritable changes in the characters of, organisms are called mutation., 2. Mutants: The individuals showing these heritable changes are, known as mutants., 3. Mutagens Agents, both chemical and physical, increase the, frequency of mutations several -fold are called mutagens., Examples commonly used mutagens:, Mutagens, SN Class, Physical mutagens, I., a -rays, n -rays, y -rays (14C, ° CO), & x-rays, toning radiations, UV rays, Non- ioning radiations, _, Chemical mutagens, 2., Mustard gas, EMS, MMS, EES, Alkalating agents, 5-Bromouracil, _Base analogues, _, Acriflavin, Acridine dyes, Ethium bromide, Deamination agents, ., ., ., ", - . ,.-.4, Note: -The rate of spontaneous mutation is very low generaiiy ranges iu —i u Lot, eukaryotes and le—le for prokaryotes., , Linkage, • All the genes on a chromosome are said to be linked to one, another and belong to the linkage group., , Plant breeding & genetics, , 353, , A Competitive Book of Agriculture
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•, , The phenomenon of inheritance of linked genes in same, linkage group is called linkage., • It opposites to crossing over., Phases of linkage:, a. Coupling: Linkage between two or more either dominant, (AB) or recessive (ab) allele is referred to as coupling., b. Repulsion: Linkage of dominant allele with that of recessive, allele (Ab or aB) is known as repulsion., Detection of linkage:, • Test cross is the most common method of detecting the, linkage., Interference (Muller):, • Tendency of one crossover to reduce the chance of another, crossover in its adjacent region., Coincidence (Muller):, •, , It explained the strength or degree of interference., , Sex determination:, • It utilizes various genetically concepts to decide whether a, particular individual will develop into male or female sex., • Sex determining genes are present on both x -chromosomes, as well as autosomes., Sex -linked characters:, • The characters for which genes are located on sex, chromosomes are known as sex—linked traits., • Such genes are called sex linked genes, and linkage of such, genes is referred to as sex linkage., , Main features:, , a. Location: Sex —linked genes are located on X chromosomes, only., b. Number: In diploid organism, each homogametic sex (xx or, , zz) has two copies of linked alleles., c. Expression: In homogametic sex, a recessive gene can, express. In heterogametic sex, a recessive allele can express., , Plant breeding & genetics, , 354, , A Competitive Book of Agriculture
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d. Transmission: Sex linked genes are transmitted from female, to male and not from the male, because males receive their x, chromosome from the female only. Sex linked genes are first, inherited from male to female in the first generation and then, back to male in the second generation. This type of, inheritance in which a sex linked gene is inherited from, grandfather to grandson through daughter is called cris-cross, inheritance., Sex linked characters:, a. In drosophila (white eye, vermilion eye)., b. Hemophilia is the well known example of sex linkage in, human. In case of a marriage between hemophilic woman and, normal man, the disease will be transmitted to 50% of the, sons even if the gene is in heterozygous condition in the, carrier., c. The colour blindness is another example of sex linkage in, humans. Sons from the marriage between colour blind man, and normal woman will be normal, but daughters will carry, such genes in heterozygous condition. Marriage of such, carrier girl with colour blind boy will yield children in which, both male and female children will be colour blind each in, 50% cases., Sex limited characters:, •( The characters which are expressed in one sex only are, referred to as sex limited characters. E.g. breast development, in woman and beard in man., , Protein synthesis, Involve two main processes:, I. Transcription/tenalism:, • The process of synthesis of messenger RNA from a DNA, template is known as transcription., , Plant breeding & genetics, , 355, , A Competitive Book of Agriculture
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•, , It takes place during interphase and continues up to prophase, of cell division., , •, , DNA, (Transcriptase + Transcription ions), m-RNA, Reverse transcription:, • Formation of DNA from mRNA is known as reverse, transcription, • m-RNA, DNA, 2. Translation:, • The process of protein synthesis from information in m-RNA, is known as translation., • DNA, mRNA(transcription), Protein (translation), Cytoplasmic inheritance:, • Most of phenotypic characters are controlled by genes present, in the chromosomes. but some characters expressed by, , factors present in the cytoplasm. These factors lying in the, •, •, , •, , cytoplasm are called plasmagenes., The transmission of characters controlled by plasma genes is, called Cytoplasmic inheritance., The first case of Cytoplasmic inheritance was reported by, Correns in 1909 in four 0" clock (Mirabilis jalapa) for leaf, colour., It is used for development of Cytoplasmic male sterility, (CMS) lines in several crops like maize, pearl millet,, sorghum, cotton etc., Unit -9, Plant breeding, , Contributions of breeders:, I. Thomas Fairchild (1717):, • Developed first inter -specific hybrid between sweet william, and carnation species of Dianthus, 2. Rimpu (1890):, • Made first inter -generic cross between bread wheat (T., aestivum) and rye (Secale cereal) to give birth of Triticale., Plant breeding & genetics, , 356, , A Competitive Book of Agriculture
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•, 3., , DT -46 is the variety of triticale, , Jones, D.F. (1917):, •, •, , Made double cross in maize, Used genetic male sterility in the development of maize, , hybrid., 4. Vavilon, N.I.:, • The center of origin given by: Vavilon, •, 5., , 6., , 7., , 8., 9., , Identify 8 main centers and 3 sub centers of crop diversity., , Nagaharu, U (1935):, • Tetraploids species of Brassica using a triangle which is, popularly known as U' s triangle., Harrington, J.B. (1937):, • Proposed mass pedigree method of breeding which is a, modification of pedigree method., Flor, H. H. (1956):, • He developed the concept of gene for gene hypothesis in flax, for flax rust caused by Malampsora lint., Vander Plank, J. E. (1963):, • Developed the concept of vertical and horizontal resistance., Donald, C.M. (1968):, • Crop Ideotype working with wheat. (RAS-09), , Breeding methods:, 1. Pure line selection (by Johansen):, • Refers to the homogenous progeny of a self pollinated, •, , •, , homozygous plant., Development of new variety through identification and, isolation of single best plant progeny is known as pure line, selection or individual plant selection., This method is commonly used in self pollinated species e.g., Wheat, barley. (RAS-09), , 2., , Mass selection:, • Refers to a method of crop improvement in which individual, , plants are selected on the basis of phenotype from a mixed, , Plant breeding & genetics, , 357, , A Competitive Book of Agriculture
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population, their seed are bulked and used to grow the next, •, •, •, , generation., This is one of the oldest methods of crop improvement., Mass selection is applicable to both self and cross, pollinated species but mostly for cross pollinated crops., E.g. Maize, pearl millet, mustard & often cross pollinate, crops like cotton, sorghum etc., , 3. Clonal selection:, • Progeny of a single plant obtained by asexual reproduction is, known as clone., • Crops which are propagated asexually or by vegetative means, , are known as asexually propagated or vegetative propagated, or clonal crops., 4. Pedigree method:, • Pedigree refers to record of the ancestry of an individual, , selected plant., • Pedigree breeding is a method of genetic improvement of self, pollinated species in which superior genotypes are selected, from segregating generations and proper record of the, ancestry of selected plants are maintained in each generation., Applications:, • It is widely used for the improvement of self pollinated, species for development of new varieties, while in cross, pollinated species it is used for development of inbred lines., 5. Bulk breeding methods:, • Selection refers to selection procedures in which the, segregating population of self pollinated species is grown in, bulk plot., • This method is also known as mass or population method., • This method is used for the genetic improvement of self, pollinated crop plants., 6. Backcross method:, • Backcross refers to crossing of F1 with either of its parents., , Plant breeding & genetics, , 358, , A Competitive Book of Agriculture
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0 ,0 1 1 1 1 0, . 2•, , ••, , AW:r71, , •, , When the F1 is crossed with homozygous recessive parent, it, is known as test cross., • Back cross method is applicable in all three groups of crop, plants, viz, self pollinated, cross pollinated and asexually, propagated., • Backcross method has been widely used for the development, of disease resistance varieties in both self and cross, pollinated species of wheat and cotton., • It has also been used for inter -specific gene transfer and, development of multiline varieties in self pollinated species., 7. Recurrent selection:, • As reselection generation after generation with interbreeding, of selects to provide for genetic recombination, • It was originally developed as a method of breeding cross, pollinated species, but now it is also used for self pollinated, species., Unit -10, Seed technology, , 71zwiim, .a., , Seed:, • Botanically seed is a fertilized ovule consisting of intact, embryo, stored food and seed coat which is viable and has got, , the capacity to germinate., • Indian seed act passed in: 1966, • National Seed Corporation in: 1963, Types of pure seeds:, a. Breeder/nucleus seed:, • Such seed are produced directly under the supervision of, •, , plant breeder., , It possessed all the required genetic characters and 99.9%, , genetically pure., Breeder seed is used to produce foundation seed., It has golden yellow colored tag., b. Foundation seed:, •, •, , Plant breeding & genetics, , 359, , A Competitive Book of Agriculture
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•, •, , It's progeny of breeder seed., Known as mother seed and it is the source of registered and, certified seed classes., • It is genetically 99.9%% pure. However, physical purity of, 98% is permissible., • Production of foundation seed is the responsibility of national, seeds corporation., • It is produced on government farms, at experiment stations,, apiculture universities or on cultivator's field under strict, supervision of research scientists and expert from seed, certification agencies (SCA)., • White tag is denotes for foundation seed., , Registered seed:, • Produced from Foundation seed or registered seed itself., • It has satisfactory genetic identity and purity., • In India it is generally omitted and certified seed is produced, directly from foundation seed., • It has purple/orange tag., Certified seed:, • Progeny of registered seed, foundation seed or Certified seed, itself., • It has satisfactory genetic identity and purity., • It is approved and certified by the state seed certifying agency, • It denoted by blue tag., • It is available for general distribution to farmers for, commercial crop production., Viability of seeds:, • Seeds viability is defined as the capacity of the seed to, remain capable of germination for some specific period of, time., Seed viability tests:, a. Potassium permanganate method:, • It's qualitative test to find out whether seeds are viable., b. Tetrazolium chloride test:, Plant breeding & genetics, , 360, , A Competitive Book of Agriculture
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•, •, , Known as biological test, Seeds are soaked in 0.5-2% solution of 2, 3, 5, triphenyl, tetrazolium chloride., • The viable or living seeds take bright red coloration and the, colour becomes more intense in the embryo., • It is a quickest method of viability test., c. Grodex test:, • Grodex is a seed germination indicator, • It's a brand name of triphenyl tetrazolium bromide in, powder form., Isolation distance:, • Isolation of seed crop is essential to avoid genetic & physical, impurities., Minimum isolation requirements of some crops:, Crops, , Minimum isolation distance (in m), Certified seed, Foundation seed, , Self pollinated crops like, rice, wheat, barley, oat, Pearl millet hybrid, , 3, , 3, , 1000, , 200, , Maize, sorghum, , 400, , 200, , Cotton hybrid, , 50, , 30, , Groundnut, Soyabean, , 3, , 3, , Rapeseed & Mustard, , 400, , 200, , 800/1000, , 400/500, , 400, , 200, , 50, , 25, , 1000, , 1000, , Cucurbits, Okra, , Tomato, Oni on, , Real value of seed:, • Real Value =, Plant breeding & genetics, , !, , Purity % x Germination %, 100, , 361, , A Competitive Book of Agriculture
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•, , It's percentage of germinability of percentage of purity of, , seed lot of a crop plant., It is expressed in percentage and also known as utility, percentage of seed., • Impurity percentage is called Dockage., Genetic purity:, " • Genetic purity is required 100% as far as an impurity by, seeds of other varieties of same crop is concerned but in case, •, , of impurity by seeds of other crop species; it is permitted up, to 0.1% only in foundation seed and 0-0.5% in other seeds., • Seed index: Weight of 100 seeds (seed index used in case of, bold seeds like gram, maize)., • Test weight: Weight of 1000 seeds (wt. of small seeds like, rice, wheat etc.)., • Seed quality index: It is the vigor of seed germination., • Germination percentage in maize is: 90 % (highest in field, crops), • In cotton germination percent is: 65 % (lowest among field, crops), Seed dormancy:, • Unability of viable seed to germinate even under optimal, conditions provided for germination., Breaking of dormancy:, 1. Scarification: Process of breaking/softening the seed coat to, make it permeable to water and gases., KNO3 (1-3 %): Strongest dormancy breaker., , ./ Thiourea: Mainly used in case of potato., 2. Stratification: Seeds are subjects to temperature treatment, , (chilling temperature)., E.g For chilling treatment: Seeds should be kept 2 - 8 "C for, 12-24 hours., Seed plot technique of potato:, • Developed by Pushkarnath et. Al. in 1967, • It is a technique of multiplication of disease free (Virus free), seed in Northern plains of country, • The viruses are transmitted by aphids., v, , Plant breeding & genetics, , 362, , A Competa, , !look of Agriculture
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•, , Nucleus seed of potato is produced during April to August, when aphid population is low in hills. It is brought to plains, , and is stored in cold -storage for planting the seed crop in, October., Other categories of seeds:, 1. Orthodox seeds:, • Seeds remain viable for long time at low temperature and low, moisture content. They don't lose their viability at low, temperature e.g. Seeds of cereals., 2. Recalcitrant seed:, • Seeds don't remain viable for long time at low moisture &, low temperature, because they show very drastic loss of, viability with decrease in moisture content below 12-14%., • E.g. Mango, coconut seeds, Seed Act:, • The seed Act was enacted by the parliament on 29.12.1966, and the seed rule were notified in 1968., •, , This act came into force throughout the country on 2" Oct., , •, , 1969., Seed was declared as an essential commodity under the, , Essential Commodity Act 1955., Seed production agencies:, a. National Seed Corporation (NSC): it was registered in 1963, having objectives of:, • To promote development of a seed industry in India., • To produce and supply foundation seeds of various crops, b., , State Seed Corporation (SSC): it concerned with;, • Production and supply of certified seed, • To reduce the work load of NSC., , Agmark:, • According to Agriculture Production Act 1937, • It's used National mark to express quality/Purity of, agriculture and animal (dairy) products., • Central laboratory of agmark is situated at: Nagpur., Plant breeding & genetics, , 363, , A Competitive Book of Agriculture
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1., 2., 3., 4., 5., , 6., 7., , •, ., Terminology, Genetics: The branch of biology concerned with the study of, heredity and variation, Eugenics: The application of principles of genetics for the, improvement of humankind., Gene pool: The sum total of all the alleles present in the breeding, or reproductive members of a random mating population., Gene frequency: The proportion of one allele relative to all the, alleles of a gene in a Mendelian population., Cytogenetics: Concerns with the study of various aspects of, chromosomes and their effects on the development of characters, of organisms, Genome: A complete set of chromosomes of a diploid species, The first artificial hybrids in plants were produced by Thomas, , Fairchild in 1717 when he crossed sweet William with, carnation., 8. Euphenics: Deals with the control of hereditary diseases, especially inborn errors of metabolism., 9. Epistasis: When one gene affects in any way the expression of, another gene, the phenomenon is called epistasis., 10. Genomics: It refers to the study of the structure and function of, entire genome of an organism., 11. Biodiversity: Refers to the total variability present within and, among species of all living organisms and their habits, 12. Acclimatization: Refers to adaptation or adjustment of an, introduced variety to the new environment., 13. A -line: Means the male sterile parent used in crossing to, , develop a new hybrid seed. it is the male sterile line., 14. B -line: It is the fertile counter parent of the 'A' line, it is, also called the maintainer line., 15. R -line: It is an inbred line which when crossed with a male, sterile strain, the resultant hybrid is male fertile., 16. In vitro: biochemical process taking place in a test tubes (in lab.), A Competitive Book of Agriculture, Plant breeding & genetics, 364
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J7. In vivo: biological process taking place in a living cell or, organism., 18. Cris -cross inheritance: Inheritance of sex linked genes from, grandfather to grandson through daughter., 19. Gene cloning: Isolating a gene and process of producing identical, copies is known as gene cloning., 20. Electroporation: A technique uses electric discharge to produce, pores on cell membrane for intake of recombinant DNA., 21. Heterosis: Heterosis: The superiority of F1 in one or more, character over its parents known as Heterosis/hybrid vigour., 22. Heterobeltosis: When F1 is found superior to either parents, 23. Allogamy/cross pollination: Pollen grains from flowers of one, plant transferred to receptive stigmas of flower of another plants., 24. Self pollination/autogamy: Pollen grains from an anther fall on, receptive stigma of the same flower., 25. Chasmogamy: Flower opens, but only after the pollination has, taken place e.g. Moong, 26. Cleistogamy: Flower does not open at all, ensuring complete self, pollination e.g. Wheat, cereals., 27. Geitonogamy: Pollen grains from flowers of one plant fall on the, receptive stigmas of other flower of the same plant e.g. Maize, 28. Monoecious: Male and female reproductive structures are found, on the same plant but in separate flowers e.g. Maize, 29. Dioecious: Male and female reproductive structures are found on, separate plants e.g. Papaya, date palm, 30. Pseudo-heterosis: Superiority of F1over its parents in vegetative, growth, but not in yield and adaptation also called Luxuriance., 31. Inbreeding: Mating between closely related individuals such as, selfing and sub -mating., , 32. Inbreeding depression: Loss or decrease in vigour and fitness as, result of inbreeding., 33. Three way cross hybrid: The hybrid progeny between a single, cross and an inbred viz. (A x B) x C., Plant breeding & genetics, , 365, , A Competitive Book of Agriculture
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O. PLANT PHYVOLOGY, , Important points:, •, , Theory of evolution was given by: Charles Darwin., , •, , Photo -respiration is: Energy spending process., Mass flow is affected by: Transpiration., Conversion of fat to sugar occurs in: Glyoxysomes., , •, I, •, , Photorespirat ion occurs in: Chloroplast., •, Photosynthesis in an: Oxidation —reduction process., •, Photo system II is absent in: C4plants., I Conversion of fat into carbohydrate is in: Glyoxylate cycle., I Precursor of IAA is: Tryptophan., • Father of plant physiology is: Stephen hales., I Cobalt as a constituent of: Vit. B12, ✓, Law of tolerance introduced by: Shelford, • Glycolysis occurs in the part of cell: Cytoplasm, ✓, Krebs cycle & ETC occurs in: Mitochondria, •, Final product of Glycolysis is: Pyruvate, ✓, •, •, •, •, ✓, ✓, ✓, •, ✓, ✓, ✓, I, •, I, , Light or hill reaction takes place in: Grana of chloroplast, Dark reaction or Calvin cycle takes place in: Stroma of, chloroplast, Most abundant protein in the world: Rubisco, One molecule of glucose is produced: 686 Kcal., Highest water use efficiency order: CAM > C4> C3, Kranz type leaf anatomy found in: C 4 plants, Calvin cycle & hatch- slack occurs in: Chloroplast, Photosynthetic rate highest in: C 4 plants, Glucose is a type of sugar: Monosaccharide, Sugar which is sweetest among all sugars: Fructose, Examples of disaccharides are: Maltose, lactose, sucrose, Non reducing sugar: Sucrose, Sugar found in germinating seeds: Maltose, Lactose (milk sugar) is a combination: Glucose + Galactose, Term protein was coined by: Moulder in 1840, The term enzyme was coined by: W. Kutins, Plant Physiology, , 367, , A Competitive Book of Agriculture
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1 Lock & key model was proposed by: Fisher, V Term vitamin was proposed by: Funk, 1 Bond that joins amino acids: Carboxyl, 1 Kranz anatomy was shown by which group of plants:, 1, V, 1, V, 1, V, 1, I, 1, I, , C4, , plants, Who used the term Florigen for a flowering stimulus, hormone: M. Chailakyan, Mineral element which is involved in stomatal movement, is: K., Light reaction of photosynthesis takes place in:, Thailakoid, Breaking of seed dormancy by low tempreature treatment, of moist seeds is termed as: Stratification, RNA synthesis takes place in: Ribosomes, This is essential factor for germination of seed: Air, Soaking up of water by dry substances due to hydrophilic, colloids is: Imbibitions, Shrinkage of protoplasm due to outward flow of water in a, hypertonic solution: Plasmolysis, The effect of global warming is somewhat good on C 4 plants, because they efficient user of MEmerson & Lewis (1943): They observed that quantum yield, declined sharply at wavelength greater than 600 nm in red, zone also called red drop., , ,./ The red spectrum (wavelength of 580 nm to 680 mu ) of, light which is the most effective for inducing flowering in, both short day and long day plants., 1 Otto Warburg 1920: found that photosynthesis in algae was, inhibited by 02. This occurs in all C 3 plants and this effect is, known as Warburg effect., 1 The light intensity, at which the photosynthetic intake of CO2, is equal to the respiratory output of CO2, is called, compensation point., , Plant Physiology, , 368, , A Competitive Book of Agri:tinily
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I, , Therefore net photosynthesis is zero at the compensation, point., , I, , The cold treatment to a plant bud or seedling in order to, , I, 1, 1, , 1, 1, '7, I, 1, I, , fulfill a specific low temperature requirement (especially for, cool loving plants) is known as: Vernalisation., The term "vernalisation" was coined by: T.D. Lysenko., Translocation of water and nutrients from roots to above, ground parts of plants takes place through: Xylem., Mineral deficiency in plants can be quickly corrected by:, Foliar spray, In water molecule angle between H 2 and 02 molecules is:, /05°, The total amount of water present in the soil is called as:, Holland, Mass flow/pressure flow theory for the movement of food, was given by Munch., Most abundant chemical present in the cell wall is: Lignin, Accumulation of hormone during stress is: Proline, Photorespiration occurs in C 3 plants in: Light only, Nutrient evolved in the biosynthesis of IAA is: Zn, , Types of protein:, Proteins, Collagen, Keratin, Fibroin, Elastin, Regulatory, , Plant Physiology, , Presence, Muscles, Hair & nail, Silk, Insect wings, Enzymes, , 369, , A, , ••, , Book of Agriculture
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Plant avsioloor, •, , Plant physiology is the study of vital or functional activities, of plants., , Diffusion:, , 1., , •, , Means to spread or to disperse in all directions., The movement of the molecules of gases, liquids and solids, from the regions of higher concentration to the regions of, lower concentration until a equilibrium is reached among, , •, , molecules throughout the available space is known as, dijfusion e.g. Spreading of scent molecules in rooms., Other examples of diffusion are:, , •, , •, •, 2., , •, Osmosis:, •, , States of diffusion:, Gas into liquid:, Liquid into gas:, Solid into gas:, , Formed, Foam., Clouds (vapor)., Smoke., , It is a special type diffusion of liquids though a semi, , permeable membrane., •, , •, , Means diffusion of liquids from lower concentration of, solution to higher concentration through semi -permeable, , membrane. Osmosis occurs only in liquids., Plasma/cell membrane is a semi -permeable membrane e.g., , Swollen of Kismis in water., •, a., , In a pure solvent, the value of osmotic potential is zero., Endo osmosis: The solvent of lower concentration is enter inside, , the cell is called endo-osmosis., • Eg. Raisins (Kismis) swell in water due to endosmosis., b. Exo osmosis: The out ward movement of solvent from higher, concentration medium is called exo-osmosis., • E.g. In pickles salt act as exo-osmosis on bacterial cells and, killed microbes., 3. Plasmolysis:, Plant Physiology, , 370, , A Competitive Book of Agriculture
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•, , Plasmolysis is the shrinking of protoplasm due to outward, flow of water in a hypertonic solution., , •, , If a plasmolysed cell is kept in pure water, the cell attains, , their original shape and size due to endosmosis. This, phenomenon is called de-plasmolysis., • E.g. Excessive use of fertilizer in the soil kill the plant due to, plasmolysis., 4. Diffusion pressure deficit (DPD):, • It is also called suction pressure., •, It is the force per unit area by which water enters into a cell., • DPD = OP - TP(WP), Where,, • OP = Osmotic pressure, •, •, , •, •, , TP =, , Turgor pressure, , •, WP = Wall pressure, When water enter in a cell, due to swelling a (outward), , pressure exerted by the cell solution on the cell wall is known, as turgor pressure., When water enters in cell, the cell wall exert an opposite, (inward) pressure on cell membrane is called wall pressure., Water potential is always negative and the maximum value is, , zero., 5. Solutions:, a. Hypotonic solution: means low concentrate solution., b. Hypertonic solution: Strong or higher concentrate., c. Isotonic: Neither weak nor strong solution e.g. eye drops, 6. Imbibitions:, • The adsorption of water by dry woody substances due to, hydrophilic colloids is called imbibitions., • E.g. Absorption of water by dry woods., , Plant Physiology, , 371, , A Competitive Book of Agriculture
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Water relation, Absorption of water by plants:, • The absorption of water takes place in the terminal portion of, , roots i.e. root hairs., •, , Root hairs are more developed in xerophytes and absent in, hydrophytes., , Types of absorption:, a. Active absorption: Water is absorbed due to activities of roots, , and metabolic energy is spend in non osmotic active absorption., only a small portion of water is absorbed by active absorption., b. Passive absorption: Passive absorption is controlled by activities, of areal parts i.e. shoots, leaves of plants due to pressure exerted, by transpiration, hence energy is not required. Plant absorbs most, of water by passive absorption., Ascent of cell sap:, •, , The upward movement of water from stem base to tree top is, called 'ascent of sap'., Mechanism of ascent of sap:, a. Vital theories:, (i) Relay or clambering pump theory: given by Godlewski 1884., (ii) Pulsation theory: given by Sir J. C. Bose (1923)., b. Root pressure theory:, • It coined by Stephan Hales (1727)., • The hydrostatic pressure developed due to the accumulation, of water absorbed by the roots called root pressure., • It measured by manometer., c. Physical theories:, (i) Capillarity theory: Boehm 1809: He stated that water rises, in narrow tubes due to surface tension., (ii) Imbibitional theory: According to Sachs 1878, imbibitions, activity of cell walls of xylem is responsible for ascent of sap., (iii) Cohesion and adhesion theory/transpiration pull theory:, Plant Physiology, , 372, , A Competitive Book of Agriculture
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•, •, , This theory was propounded by Dixon & Jolly 1894, This theory is most accepted theory., •, , Loss of water in plants:, a. Transpiration:, •, •, •, •, •, •, •, , The loss of water in the form the living aerial parts of the, plant in the form of water vapour is termed as transpiration., Transpiration is a necessary evil., It cooled down the leaf surface of plants., Nearly 99% of the water absorbed by the plants is lost in, transpiration., It is a vital and unavoidable phenomenon of plants., Transpiration is regulated by stomata activities., The principle organ of transpiration is leaf., , •, , Again foliar transpiration is of two types viz. Stomata! (8090 %) and cuticular (up to 20 %)., (i) Stomata:, • These are specialized epidermal cells which are distributed, all over leaf surface but in case of terrestrial plants, mainly on, lower surface of leaves, therefore approx. 97% of, transpiration takes place from the lower surface in such, , plants., Each stomata has two kidney shaped guard cells, inner wall, of guard cell is thick and outer wall is thin., Mechanism of stomata opening and closing:, • Opening and closing of stomata are due to its turgidity and, flaccidity respectively. Means stomatal movement is, governed by Turgor pressure., • When T.P. of guard cells increases, stomata are opened and, when decreases, stomata are closed., • Rate of transpiration is determined by Photometer., •, , b. Guttation:, , •, , Term is given by Burgerstein, Plant Physiology, , 373, , A Competitive Book of Agriculture
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•, , The exudation of water with salt and minerals through, , hydathode is called Guttation., •, , Hydathode: a structure present at tips of veins of leaves., It is caused due to root pressure, Guttation normally occurs at night., , •, •, , Unit -3, , Photosynthesis, 1. Photosynthetic pigments:, a. Chlorophylls pigments:, •, , Chlorophylls occur in the grana plastid and are associated, with the thylakoids membrane., • The centre of the porphyrine ring of chlorophyll A & B, contains a single atom of magnesium (Mg)., Chlorophyll pigments are two types:, (i) Chlorophyll 'a':, • Empirical formula is C55 H720 5N4 Mg., • Occurrence is universal in green plants., (ii) Chlorophyll 'b':, • Empirical formula of Chlorophyll '13' is C55H70 0 6 N4 Mg• It present in higher plants and in green algae but absent in, red algae., b. Carotenoids pigment:, •, •, •, •, (i), , Carotene and xanthophylls are together called `Carotenoids'., It belongs to large group of compounds called terpenoids., These are fat soluble yellow pigments., Carotenoids are located in chloroplast and chromoplast, , Carotene:, • Orange -yellow coloured having empirical formula, H, •, , •, , It, , C40, , ., , is abundant in roots of carrot hence the name carotene, , Its most common form is n -carotene., , Plant Physiology, , 374, , A Competitive Book of Agriculture
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•, , pn -carotene is the precursor of Vitamin A., , •, , It's quickly oxidized in air hence the rapid change of, colour takes place in the scalped carrot., , (ii) Xanthophylls:, , c., , •, , It's more abundant than carotenes having yellow to, , •, , brown colour., Empirical formula is C40, , H56, , 0 2, , is also called carotenol., • The principal yellow pigment of maize is zeaxanthin., Anthocyanin:, •, , It, , •, , It is a purple pigment, , •, , Soluble in water hence it occurs in solution form in the, , water of the cells., • It doesn't take part in photosynthesis, • It is present in sugar beet, apple, 2. Photosynthesis/CO2assimilation/food production:, Definition:, • The formation of carbohydrates from utilizing CO2 and water, by illuminated green cells and 02 liberated as by product is, called photosynthesis., (Light + Chlorophyll), ø. C6111206 +, , 6CO2 + 6H20, , 6 0 2, , •, , Reaction of the light phase is light sensitive hence called, photochemical reaction., • Source of oxygen during photosynthesis is H20, • The conversion of light energy in to chemical energy i.e. ATP, is called Rhotophosphorylation'., • The breakdown of water molecule I-120 into hydrogen and, oxygen by light energy is called as Photolysis of water., It has two phases' viz, light phase and dark phase:, a., , Light reactions:, • The site of light reaction is grana and dependent on pigment., Plant Physiology, , 375, , A Competitive Book of Agriculture
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(Chloroplast), •, , Light + 1120, , 0 2 released, , Emerson effect:, •, , Green plant exposed to monochromatic light i.e. wavelength, greater than 680 nm in red zone this prolonged duration of, red zone decreased the rate of photosynthesis (i.e. decrease in, quantum yield) this effect is called red drop., , •, , The quantum yield produced by the mixed light was greater, , than the total yield got from the two beams of light used, separately. This enhancement effect is known as Emerson, , effect'., b. Dark reaction:, •, , Dark phase of photosynthesis i.e. CO2 fixation:, , •, , The reactions of the dark phase are temperature sensitive and, , don't requires light., •, , This is purely chemical reaction and called Blackman, reactions on the name of F.F. Blackman who first, demonstrated its existence., (i) Calvin cycle/C3-cycle:, •, This is predominantly found in wheat, rice, barley, pulses,, soyabean, cotton, sunflower etc. and such plants are called, C 3 plants because in the Calvin cycle, first stable product is, (PGA) C 3 compound (having three number of carbon in a, compound)., Blackman's: law of minimum or low of limiting factor:, • CO2, (Light, ATP + NADH2) Reduction in CH20, , •, , If light intensity is increased by twice but CO2-concentration, is constant, there will be no increase in photosynthetic rate., • It means CO2 acts as a limiting factor because its, concentration is available in minimum quantity., (ii) Hatch & slack cycle/C4cycle:, • It is found in sugarcane, maize, sorghum, bajra etc. such, plants are called C 4 plants., •, C 4 plants have "kranz anatomy" in leaves., Plant Physiology, , 376, , A Competitive Book of Agriculture, , .666211604, , ,' 6
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•, , 1st stable product is 4 carbon compound Oxalo-acetic acid, , (OAA) or malic acid, hence the name C4-cycle., PEP carboxylase has high affiinity for CO2 and hence, C4, plants are able to absorb CO2 strongly from a much lower, C O2 concentration than the C 3 plants., Thereby resulting higher rate of photosynthesis., Most of weeds are C 4 plants., , •, , •, •, , plants lack photo respiration, hence photosynthetic rate is, higher., , •, , C4, , (iii) Crassulacean acid metabolism (CAM):, •, All CAM plants have succulent habit., • Such plants have also the capability of fixing the CO2 lost in, respiration., • Such plants behave like C 4 plants during the night and as C 3, plants during the day., • These plants have slowest photosynthetic rates., • In CAM plants open the stomata during the night and closed, at day time., E.g. Onion, Garlic, Sisal, Lilli and plant of family, crassulaceae (eg. cactus, pine apple)., Difference between C3, C4 and CAM plants:, •, , S.N, , Particulars, , C 3 Plants, , 1, , Site of the cycle, i.e. leaf structure, , Mesophyll, , 2, 3, 4, , ist, , stable, , compound, , PGA, carbon), , CO2acceptor, Dark, reaction, , RuBP, Calvin cycle, , through, 5, , Compensation, point, (CO2, Plant Physiology, , 50 ppm, 377, , CAM, Plants, Mesophyll, and Mesophyll, bundle sheath cell and vacuole, i.e.kranz anatomy, OAA or Mallic acid Both, C4, , (3-, , Plants, , (4-C), PEP, Hatch & Slack, cycle and Calvin, cycle, 1-5 ppm, , PEP, , A Competitive Book of Agriculture
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concentration), , Photosynthetic, , 6, , rate, Biomass, production, Light saturation, point, , 7, 8, , Slow, , Medium, , High, , Medium, , High, , Low, , Low, , High, , Medium, , photorespiration, , High, , Low, , Low, , 10, , Water, use, efficiency, Transpiration, , Low, , medium, , High, , High, , Medium, , Low, , rate, Urkit-4, , Respiration, 1., , Photorespiration/glycolate pathway:, •, Krtokov (1963) introduced the term photorespiration to refers, to the release of CO 2 in respiration in presence of light., ✓, In photorespiration high conc. 0 2 induced by high light,, checks the production of two molecules of PGA and forms, glycolate instead of one molecule of PGA., • H 20 2 is formed., ✓, Known as C2cycle (2 -carbon compound; glycolate), • Don't formed ATP (energy) hence;, ✓, This is energy consuming/harmful process., ✓, It, occurs between chloroplast, peroxysomes and, mitochondria., , 2., , Respiration:, • The energy, , is released by the oxidation of various, photosynthetic products especially carbohydrates by the, process called respiration., C6H1206, , Plant Physiology, , ,, , _, , 9, , 11, , ., , 11., , 378, , CO2+ H20 + 686 kcal, A Competitive Book of Agriculture
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Mechanism of respiration:, I First and common stage in respiration is called glycolysis or, EMP pathway., 1 One molecule of glucose gives: two molecules of pyruvic, acid., ✓, Hence, end product of glycolysis is pyruvic acid., • It occurs in cytoplasm under anaerobic condition., ✓, Acetyl✓Co✓—A: link molecule between glycolysis and Krebs, cycle., V 2 molecules of pyruvic acid and further will be oxidized, through link and Krebs cycle, • Two molecule of NADH2: further will be used for electron, transport system to release H20, ✓, Net production: 2 ATP in glycolysis. But two molecules of, NADH2 will be oxidized aerobically to yield 6 molecules of, ATP., ✓, Thus total molecule of ATP through glycolysis in presence of, 0 2 will be eight instead of two., ✓, Both ETS & Krebs cycle (citric acid/TCA cycle) takes place, in mitochondria under aerobic condition., ✓, Energy released during respiration:, ✓, During the break down of one molecule of glucose, Net 36, ATP molecules are formed., 3. Respiratory quotient:, • R.Q. is the ratio of the volume of CO2 released to the volume, of 02 absorbed in the respiration., • It is also called respiratory ratio, • R.Q. = Volume of released CO2/volume of absorbed 02, R.Q. values of some products:, •, •, •, •, •, , Fat:, Protein:, Carbohydrates:, Succulents:, Organic acid:, Plant Physiology, , 0.7, 0.8-0.9, 1.0, 0, >I or 1.33, 379, , A Competitive Book of Agriculture
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Photoperiodism, •, , Response of plant to day light period specially flowering, behaviour is called photoperiodism., The term photoperiodism was coined by Garner and Allard, , •, , (1920)., They classified plants into three categories:, a. Short day plants:, • Such plants require the day length less than 12 hours for, flower initiation.., • E.g. tobacco, soybean, rice, generally kharif crops and, many tropical plants., b. Long day plants:, • Such plants require more than 14 hours day light for flower, initiation., •, c., , E.g. wheat, barley, sugar beet, castor, generally Rabi crops, , Day neutral plants:, • Such plants are unaffected by the day length e.g. maize,, tomato, buckwheat, sunflower, cotton, cucumber etc., , Plant Physiology, , 380, , A Competitive Book of Agriculture, , '•, , • • : •..
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11. ArirtICULTURE EXTENVON, Extension: Derived from two Latin words., Ex, Tens is =, , Out, Stretching., , Education:, •, Production of desirable changes in human behavior through, gaining desirable knowledge, attitude and mental/manual, skill is called education., , Classification of communication:, •, I., , According to use and nature of contact:, , Individual contact method:, , Contact is face to face or person to person., It is very effective in teaching, quantum of feedback, available is very high but slow communication, • Eg. Farm and home visit, personal contact, telephone call,, office call, personal letters and result demonstration., 2. Group contact methods:, ✓ A group of 2-30 persons, Nt Group is usually formed around common interest., I Face to face contact., •, Eg. Symposium, discussion, lecture, tour and field days,, method demonstration, conference, school, seminar., I, ✓, , 3. Mass contact:, • More than 30 persons, •7, I It is more useful for making people aware of the new, , agricultural technology quickly., •, , Eg. Bulletins, leaflet/booklet/folder, newspaper, journal,, magazine, exhibition, television, radio, fairs, posters,, , cinema. drama & songs., ...nip/4s and associated persons:, i m p , ' taIla r ...w .---- --—, Associate, person/year, Project, , SN, 1, , F.L. Brayne, 1920, Ravindra Nath Tagore, 1921, Daniel Hamilton, , Gurgaon project, Shantiniketan, Rural reconstruction, Agricultural Extension, , 381, , A Competitive Book of Agriculture, , 1
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5, 6, , Marathondom, , Spencer Hatch, 1921, , Sewagram, Etawa Pilot project, , M.K. Gandhi, 1929, Albert Mayer, 1948., , Nilokheri Experiment, Majdoor Manjil, 9, Firka Development, 10 Community Development, National Extension Service, 11, Indian Village Scheme, 12, Young Farmer Association, 13, Father of Extension, 14, 15 National Demonstration:, , 7, , S.K. Dey., S.K. Dey 1947, T. Prakashan 1946, S.K. Dey, 2 Oct. 1952, 2 Oct. 1953, S.N. Gupta, P. Deshmukh, Leagnes, Kalwar and Subramanian, , Scheme, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, , Model village given by, IADP (Intensive Ag. District, Programme):, IAAP (Intensive Ag. Area, Programme), HYV Programme, Green revaluation, DPAP (Drought Prone Area, Programme), T& V (training and visit, programme), CADP, IRDP, IRDP, TRYSEM, DWCRA, , Hamilton 1903, 1960, 1964, 1966, , 1966-67, 1970, , 1974, by Daniel bonor 1974, 1974, 1979, SGSY, 1999, , SITRA etc merged into, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, , Lab to land program, Establishment of MANAGE, Nationalization of bank, Extension is a, Programme known as package, Agricultural Extension, , 382, , 1, June 1979, , Hyderabad ,1986, 1969, , Two way flow of message, IADP, —, A Competitive Book of Agriculture, , _
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programme, , 311 Concept of demonstration, , I Dr. Seaman A. Knapp, , Important facts:, V National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme started in:, Feb. 2006, • The role of extension education in India is performed by:, State Agriculture University, •V The person acting as a connecting link between higher, department official & farming community, known as: Village, extension worker, • A demonstration which shows the value or worth of the new, practice is: Result Demonstration, A process of initiating a conscious and purposeful action, is called as: Motivation, Agriculture extension worker is: A messenger men, Extension teaching is: Horizontal, Institutionalized,, chronologically, graded, and, hierarchically strucatured education system is: Formal, education, ✓, Sensory, situation is more in: Inter -personal, communication, Over—adoption may due to: Insufficient knowledge, Farm management is an: Intro jarm science, Farmers obtain short term loans from: Central co-, , operative bank, V. The most effective approach for personal contact is:, , Telephone calls, The accepted ways of eating, meeting folks, wooing,, training the young, supporting the ages etc are called:, •, •, , Customs, Which is audio-visual aids: Puppet show, The most influence type of demonstration is: Method, , demonstration, Agticultural Extension, , 383, , A Competitive Book of Agriculture
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Training and visit (T & V) system was first introdced in, the state of: Rajasthan, The constitutional 73rd amendment act, 1992 come in, , force to provide constitutional status to the panchayati raj, system in the year: 1993, Which one is a non formal education: Agricultural, extension education, The two important principles of extension education are:, , •, ✓, , Participation and leadership, ✓, , Cooperative society is basic institution for: Socio-economic, , growth of villagers, Categories of (new innovation) adopter:, •, Innovators:, Adopt immediate (2.5% of total population), •, Early adopter: 13.5 % population, •, , Laggards:, , 16% adopted last., , 1, Pu, , Agricultural Extension, , 384, , A Competitive Book of Agriculture, , I, !
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12,0 AGkICULTURE ECONOMICS, Theories in economics:, • Theory of profit:, A. Walker, • Modern theory of interest:, Hicks -Hansen, • Population theory:, Malthus, • Theory of inflation:, A.P. Lerner, • Theory of absolute advantage:, Adam Smith, Types of farmer (according to land holding):, • Marginal farmer, Less than 1 (ha.), • Small farmer, 1-2, •, Medium farmer, 2-4, •, , Large farmer, More than 4 ha, Finance according to period:, • Loan, Term (years), • Short term/ crop loan, 1 to 1.5, • Medium term, 1.5 to 5, • Long term, 5 to 30 years, Farm efficiency measures:, • Net capital ratio = Total assets/Total liabilities, • Working capital = Working assets + Current assets, Intermediary liabilities + current liabilities, •, •, •, •, , Debt Equity Ratio = Differed Liabilities/Net Worth, Production efficiency = Yield per acre/Yield of locality x 100, , Operating cost ratio = Total operation cost/Total profit, Rate of capital turn over= Gross income/Total farm income x, , 100., Difference between:, [Production economics, Macro approach, ._Inter farm science, , Decisions are made for aggregate, [2:esources of nation, Agricultural Economics, , 385, , Farm management, Micro approach, lntra farm science, —, Decisions, are, taken, individual farm, A Competitive Book of Agriculture, , for
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Variable cost, Known as cost of variable inputs, It is always in cash, It vary with level of output, , Fixed cost, Known as sunk cost, It may be cash and non cash both, , It doesn't change with level -On, out put, , Isoproduct curve:, •, , It is curve of two input combinations which have same, , output., Indifference curve:, •, It is a curve which shows combitinations of two commodities, which derive equal satisfaction to the consumer., Agricultural credit:, •, , Short term loan: For the purpose of purchasing seeds,, fertilizers and for meeting out family requirements, • Medium term: To purchase agricultural equipments,, animals, and land improvement equipments e.g. Tractor., • Long term: To purchase land, farm buildings and expensive, agricultural equipments and for repayment of old loan., Diversified farming:, •, , A, , farm on which the income from a single product is less, , than 50 % of total, Specialised farming:, •, A farm on which the income from a single enterprise is more, than or equal to 50%., Marketable surplus:, •, Portion of total produce in stock which the farmer is willing, to sell, • Total production - total requirement, •, Marketable surplus — marketed surplus only under ideal, condition., , Agricultural Economics, , 386, , A Competitive Book of Agriculture
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Marketed surplus:, • Quantity of the produces actual sale is the market at, particular time for sale., Types of assets:, •, Fixed assets: Difficult to convert in cash e.g. land, buildings, •, Working assets: Farm machinery, equipments, • Current assets: More liquid e.g. seed, fertilizer, cash, live, stock, , Important points:, ✓, Family is the basic unit of: Civilization, ✓, ✓, •, ✓, ✓, ✓, •, ✓, ✓, ✓, ✓, ✓, ✓, ✓, ✓, , Village is the basic unit rural: Society, Cooperative movement was started in India: 1904, Father of co-operative movement in India was: F Nicholson, In farm production capital is the: Passive factor, Labour in farm management is an: Active factor, The agricultural produce Act was passed in: 1937, AGMARK established in the year: 1937, Planning commission established in: 1950, March, VAT (value added tax) is an: Indirect tax, Agriculture year: June to 31' May, Financial year: 1' April to 31' March, Demand for luxurious good is: More elastic, Demand for necessary commodities is: Inelastic, One of the important fixed cost on farm is: Land rent, The demand of agricultural products in general is:, , ✓, , The price elasticity of demand for 'food' is: Relatively, , Inelastic, , inelastic, , •, ✓, , Indian economy is concerned with: Mixed type, The period of 11 th five year plan in India is: 2007-2012, , ✓, ✓, , Risk is minimized in: Diversified farming, Short term credit facility is given for the purpose of: Crop, productoin, , Agricultural Economics, , 387, , A Competitive Book of Agriculture
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✓, , Finance is provided by land development bank: Long term, , ✓, , loan, Retail markets are considered to be: Perfect market, Most important component in farm management is: Farm, , ✓, ✓, ✓, ✓, , budgeting, When marginal utility is zero, total utility is: Maximum, Principle of Equi-marginal returns is applied when:, Resources are limited, At present, the farming system of India has become:, , Market oriented, ✓, , The U" shape of cost curves could be best explained by the, law of: Variable properties, ✓, NABARD established in 12, July, 1982 with the, recommendation of: Shivaraman committee, ✓, A market structure with a large number of firmes selling, differentiated product is called: Perfect competion, I Most important principle if farm management is done is:, Low of diminishing return, V. The cost of production of the crop can be minimized by using, economic principle: Principle of least cost combination, ✓, The apex body for institution finance for agriculture in, India is: NA BARD, ✓, The national centre for agricultural economics and policy, research is located at: New delhi, ✓, According to law of diminishing return the economically, relevant zone is: Zone-ll, ✓, Principle of Equi-marginal return is applied when: The, prices o pesource is high, ✓, Law of dimising returns are operates when: One input are, ✓, ✓, ✓, , variable, Indian economy is a type of economics: Mixed economics, Father of economics: Adam Smith, The share of capital is referred as: Interest, , Agricultural Economics, , 388, , A Competitive Book of Agriculture
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✓, , In economics, anything that can satisfy a human, , called as: Goods, •, ✓, , want is, , In economics cash is a: Working capital, , All possible combination of two inputs capable of producing, same level of output refer as: Isoquant, All possible combination of two inputs which can be, purchased with a given amount of fund refer as: Isocost line, The time gap between investment and return is: Gestation, , •, ✓, ✓, ✓, •, •, ✓, •, ✓, ✓, ✓, , •, , period, Risk bearing ability depends on: Net worth, When total utility is maximum then marginal utility is: Zero, Stage I of production is also called the stage of: Increasing, return, In the case of fruits and vegetables the marketed surplus is, nearly: 80 %, The income elasticity of demand for inferior goods is:, Negative, The income elasticity of demand for giffen goods is: Negative, In the monopoly market there is: One seller of the produce, When there is a only one buyer of the product, the market is, termed as: Monopsony market, There is a large number of buyers and seller and they have, perfect knowledge of demand, supply and prices termed as:, Perfect market, Markets in which business is done in accordance with the, rules and regulations is called: Regulated market, , ✓, , The cost involved in moving the product from the point of, production to point of consumption is called: Marketing cost, , ✓, , Balance sheet of farmers exhibit the: Financial position of a, , ✓, , farmer, management at farm level is called as:, Finance, finance management, , Micro, , As per the RBI norms, 18 per cent of the Net Bank Credit, should be deployed in agriculture, , Agricultural Economics, , 389, , A Competitive Book of Agriculture
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In India marketed surplus is greater than the marketable, , I, , surplus, I, , Land rent is an example of: Fixed cost, , I, , Sales tax is an example of: Indirect tax, , ✓, , Through cooperative both members and non members are, benefited through: Cooperative, B: C ratio = Gross return /Total cost, The most common method exists in regulated market is:, , •, I, , Open auction system, •, •, •, , •, ✓, •, •, , ✓, , ,/, •, •, , The technique which protect the traders from extreme falls in, price is known as: Hedging, Storage function creates: Time utility, When one enterprise neither adds nor hinders the production, of another enterprise, the enterprise relationship is known as:, Supplementary, The percentage expenditure on luxurious commodities, increases as income increases, The market in which permanent or durable commodities are, traded: Secular market, Crop farming and milk production is an example of:, Complementary enterprise, In WTO, non -actionable subsidies like those on agricultural, research, plant protection chemicals and subsidies for, ecologically fragile zone are counted under: Green box, Limited permission on subsidies like those on electricity,, irrigation, fertilizers for the purpose of agricultural, production are counted under: Blue box, Agriculture produce (Grading and Marketing) Act was passed, in the year: 1937, Co-operative credit societies act was passed in: 1904, In India when co-operative movement in agriculture sector, started: 1904, , Agricultural Economics, , 390, , A Competitive Book of Agriculture
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I, , The analytical concept -cum criterion developed recently to, compare the overall development of countries is: Human, Development Index (H.D.I), The Human Development Index quoted in World, Development Report is a quantitative measure of a country's:, Standard of living, educational opportunities and Longevity, of citizen. (RAS-pre 2013)
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13. STAPSTICS, Father of vital statistics was: Captain John Grant., The purpose of randomization in field experiment is to:, , 1, 1, , Control variance, , Unit less measure of dispersion is: C V., Coefficient of Variation is computed by: (S.D./Mean)x 100, , 1, 1, 1, 1, I, 1, •, 1, ✓, 1, , Critical Difference (CD) is calculated by: Ni(2 MSE/r) x t, Expression for degrees of fredom in RBD is: (n-1) (r-1), The range of probability lies between: 0 to 1, Minimum degree of freedom for error in ANOVA is: 12, T' test is applicable when number of treatments is: 2, Goodness of test is used for distribution of: Chi square test, The first step of summarizing the data is: Classification, Probability of impossible event is always: Zero, To find the average height of plants we should use:, Arithmetic mean, When sample size is small and S.D. is unknown use: T' test, For testing the significance of correlation coefficient use: T', test., Latin square design is suitable for comparing: 5 to 12, treatments, In the field experiments the commonly used design is: RBD, The regression coefficient lies between: -00 to +0o, The correlation coefficient lies between: -1 to +1, The student t" test was discovered by: W.S. Cosset, The value of X2 (chi square) always lies between: 0 to 00, Most commonly used measure of central tendency is:, Arithmetic mean, Measure of dispersion which is considered as best: Standard, deviation, Which is not a measure of dispersion: Coefficient of, variation, The value of standard deviation may vary between: 0 to 00, Correlation is used to analysis the behavior of: Two or more, variable., , 1, , 1, I, ✓, 1, 1, 1, , 1, 1, 1, 1, , Agricultural Statistics, , 392, , A Competitive Book of Agriculture
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•, ‘,/, , The RBD is available for a wide range of treatments: 2 to 24, If observed frequency is equal to expected one than: The, , ,f, , value of x2 static is zero, To getting the higher precision is required: Larger samples, F" test can be used for testing the significance of: Several, differences, The minimum sample size for using x 2 test should be: 50, To find the average size of shoes sold in the market we, should use: Mode, To present the whole data by only single value we used:, Measure of central tendency, During the experimentation, the some lost information can be, get by: Missing plot technique, Two study effect of two or more factors requiring, different plot sizes: Split Plot Design, In industries for quality control, the most important measure, of dispersion: Range, If all the variate values are negative the standard deviation, will be: Positive, Under the assumption for analysis of variance, the parent, population should be: Normal, The analysis of variance technique is used for: Comparing, the means of more than two populations, The design where number of replication is equal to number of, treatments: Latin square design (LSD), For testing the independence of two attributes, the test used, , .7, •, •, .7, si, .7, .(, ,r, ./, ✓, .7, .7, /, , is: x2test, Correlation of continuity in 2 x 2 contingency table should be, used when expected frequency of any cell is: Less than 5, When two variable moves in the same direction correlation is, , said to be: Positive, When two variables moves in the opposite direction, correlation is said to be: Negative, .7 In the case of perfect negative correlation the coefficient of, correlation will be: -/, , ./, , Agricultural Statistics, , 393, , A Competitive Book of Agriculture
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✓, , Probability of any event is a number lying between: 0 to I,, but not practically zero, ✓, In describing the amount of variation in a population &, measure often used is: Coefficient of variation, ✓ If the fertility variation in the field is in two directions at right, angles, which of the experimental deign is suitable: LSD, ✓, Arithmetic mean is most commonly used because: It is based, on all observations, ✓, To testing the homogeneity of correlation coefficient used:, Chi square test, ✓, To reduce the experimental error with heterogeneous material, are used: More replication & use of local control, ✓, The lack of homogeneity in the size of distribution is called:, Dispersion, ✓, Such measure of dispersion which is affected least by, fluctuation of sampling: Standard deviation, V If the kurtosis of a distribution is less than 3, then it is called:, Platykurtic curve, V The number of independent constraints in the set of, observation is called: Degree offreedom, ✓, The test whether theory fits well in practical can be judged, by: Chi square test, ✓ For testing a single proportion of the population test is used, when the sample size is large: Z- test, ✓ The correlation between price and demand of a commodity is:, Negative, Statistics:, Definition: By statistics we means aggregates of facts, affected to a marked extent by multiplicity of causes, numerically, expressed, enumerated or estimated according to reasonable standard, of accuracy collected in a systematic manner for a predetermined, purpose and placed in relation to each other., Variable:, • A characteristic/phenomenon which may take on different, values i.e. rainfall records, birth, death rates etc., Variables are two types:, Agricultural Statistics, , 394, , A Competitive Book of Agriculture
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Continuous variable: Quantities which can take any, numerical value within certain range e.g. Plant height, yield, etc., 2. Discrete/discontinuous variable: can take only integer, values., 1., , Variate:, •, A single observation or measurement., Central tendency:, • A value of the Variate which thoroughly representative of the, series or the distribution as a whole is known as central, tendency., Measurement of central tendency:, 1. Arithmetic mean:, •, Most commonly used measure of central tendency, only, measure of practical importance., • It is regarded as the best of all the averages., • It is rigidly defined and based on all the observations., 2. Median:, • The value of the middle most when items are arranged in, either ascending or descending order of their magnitude, • E.g. 3, 6, 9, 5, 4, 7, 8 put in ascending order = 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8,, •, •, , 9., Median is = 6, , Median is used for qualitative data such as intelligence., ability, honesty etc., , 3. Mode:, • Value of the Variate which occurs most frequently or whose, •, •, •, , frequency is maximum, E.g. 4, 7, 6- 5, 4' 6, 4, Mode = 4, It used for model size of shoes, size of readymade garments, and in b usiness/meteorological fore casting., , 4. Harmonic mean:, • It is the reciprocal of the arithmatic mean, • Used to find average speed, distance and rate., Empirical relationship between mean, mode and median arc:, Agricultural Statistics, , 395, , A Competitive Book of Agriculture
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a. In a symmetrical distribution: Mean = Mode = Median., b. In a skewed distribution/asymmetrical distribution: Mean - Mode, , = 3(Mean-Median)., Measures of dispersion:, • Variation of the variable about the central value, Two types of measures of dispersion:, A. Absolute measures:, 1., , Range:, • It is simplest measure of dispersion., • Range = Largest value — Smallest value., , Properties of range:, • Coefficient of range, , =, =, , L - S/L + S, , • Quartile range, Q 3 - QI, • Coefficient of quartile range = Q3- Q i/Q3+ Q i, 2. Mean deviation:, • M. D. =, Z(X,-X), , 3., , Standard deviation/root mean square deviation:, • It is defined as the square root of the arithmetic mean., • Given by Karl Pearson, 1823 denoted by Greek word sigma, , (0 )., 4., , • S. D. = V variance, • It is most commonly used measure of dispersion, Variance:, • Term variance proposed by R.A. Fisher., • Square root of standard deviation known as variance, , B. Relative measure of dispersion:, 1. Coefficient of variation (C.V.):, • Given by Karl Pearson., • Most commonly used measure of relative variation., • C.V. = a/ x or S.D./Mean, • If standard deviation is expressed as % of mean is known as, •, , C.V., If value of C.V. is greater it means more variability or less, homogeneity, if values of C.V. less means vice versa., Agricultural Statistics, , 396, , 4 Competitive Book of Agriculture
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1. Standard error of mean:, • SEM defined as the S.D. of the sampling distribution, of, means., • It gives idea about variability of given data or sample., Moment:, • Force x distance., • The moment in statistics are used to describe the various, characteristics of frequency distribution like central tendency, (µ I), variance (µ 2), skewness (µ 3) and kurtosis (II 4)., • In a symmetrical distribution all odd moments i.e. µ1, µ3, µ5, would always be zero because positive deviation & negative, deviation of symmetry are exactly balance or equal., Difference between raw moment and central moment:, Raw moment or arbitrary mean, Central moment or central mean, It is denoted by fer, It is denoted by pr, Calculation about mean only &, Calculated about any point, take more time, - I' row moment about point A = 0 1st central moment always zero, is equal to mean, _, Central moment aren't changed of, Raw moment will be changed of, origin, origin, , Note:, • Usually calculation of central moment takes the more time, due to reason that mean may not be in whole number, therefore calculation of the central moment first we calculate, raw moment and with help of the formulae we calculate, central moment., , Raw moment:, • The r th moment about arbimatary mean "A" is defined as:, l/N F (Xl - AY, Central moment:, • The rth moment about mean (x) is defined as:, t1= 1/N 1Fi (X1-X) r, 1. Value of PO=, •, , I N, , Agricultural Statistics, , ZFE (X i-X)° = I, , 397, , A Competitive Book of Agriculture
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2., , • The Oth central moment is always one., Value of 1st central moment:, •, •, •, , 1t,= UN IF, (X i -X) I = 0, , The first central moment is always zero,, Whereas" raw moment is not zero. It is equal to, mean., 3. Value of 2"d central moment:, •, , •, Value, •, •, 5. Value, , 4., , •, , [12= UN IF, (X 1-X) 2= 432(variance), 2" central moment gives an idea about measures of, dispersion., of 3rdcentral moment:, ul = 1/N yF, (X 1-X) = measure the skewness., ui gives an idea either curve is symmetrical or not., of 41h central moment:, 114= UN IF, (X 1-X) 4= kurtosis., , Skewness:, •, , There are two type of frequency distribution:, Symmetric frequency distribution:, • Mean = Median = Mode., 2. Asymmetrical frequency distribution:, • Mean Median# Mode., • Quartiles are not equi distant from median., • Q3 — Md Md — Q1, • Curve is more inclined in one side than other., • The sum of positive deviation from median is not, equal to the sum of negative deviation from the, median., Definition:, • Skewness may be defined as departure from symmetry or, lack of symmetry of frequency distribution is known as, skewness., Skewness is two types:, 1. Positive skewed frequency distribution:, • A distribution or skewness is said to be positive if the, frequency curve has a longer tail on the right hand side as, L, , compare to left hand side., Agricultural Statistics, , 398, , A Competitive Book of Agriculture
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• Positive skewness = Mean > Median > Mode., 2. Negative skewness:, • The frequency curve is more inclined to the left hand side as, compare to right hand side., , •, , Negative skewness = Mode > Median or Mean < Median <, Mode., , Measures of skewness:, a. Prof. Karl Pearson coefficient of skewness:, •, , SK=, , Mean—Mode, , SD, b. Based on moments:, • Skewness (0,) =1132/ ft23, •, •, , y i or r =, Pi, 2, kurtosis (132) = p.4/µ2, , • y2=13-3, , For symmetric distribution:, •, , PI, , 132, , •, , =, =, , 0, , 3, , • Skewness =, 0, Kurtosis:, •, Refers to degree of flatness or peakness of the frequency, curve., Three types:, •, Leptokurtic (narrow peak/base):, 132 > 3, •, •, , Mesokurtic (normal curve):, 132 = 3, Platykurtic (flat peak/broad base):, 132 < 3, Distribution: Theoretical distributions are two types., a., , Discrete distribution:, • X can take only integer values like 0, 1, 2, 3, - - - - - • Eg. Binomial distribution, Poisson distribution, , b. Continuous distribution:, • X can take all possible values in a given range., •, , E.g. Normal distribution., , 1. Binomial distribution:, • Given by James Bernoulli in 1700 A.D., Agricultural Statistics, , 399, , A Competitive Book of Agriculture
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• Bernoulli trial: a trial is known as Bernoulli trial if it has only, two out comes namely success and failure with probability, p and q respectively., • p+q= I, Definition:, • A random variable "x" said to have binomial distribution if it, assumes only non -negative values and its probability mass, function is given by:, p (x) otho pX. n- x, •, X = 0 , , 2, - - - - -, , •, , • n = number of trial, • x = number of success of n trial, • p = probability of success, • q = probability of failure or (1-p), • p + q = 1 (B.D. represent by 1), • n p are the parameters of B.D., Properties of B.D.:, • Arithmetic mean (11.1) of B.D = np, •, •, •, •, •, , Variance (II ,) of B.D., Skewness (µ3), Kurtosis (p4), Standard Deviation, In case of B.D, , =, =, =, =, =, , npq, npq (q -p), npq (1 + 3 (n-2) p q, 4npq, , Mean > variance. (JRF-07), , 2. Poisson distribution:, • Discovered by S.D. Poisson, , Definition:, • It is a limiting case of B.D such that, •, •, •, , N tends to Go, p tends to zero, and np = m, , Therefore a variable x" is said to follow a Poisson distribution if it, assumes only negative values and its probability mass function is, given as:, Agricultural Statistics, , 400, , A Competitive Book of Agriculture
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•, , P (x), , e, , XI, X, , Here,, ✓, , X is called the parameter of P.D, X. is always greater than zero., , ✓, , X = number of success, • e = 2.718, Examples of P.D:, •, Number of deaths from a disease, • Number of defective materials, • Number of wrong calls receives in a month., Properties of P.D:, •, •, •, ", •, •, , Mean (p i):, Vafiance (p,):, 1.0:, , In case of P.D: Mean = Variance. ORE -09), P.D is useful in theory of games, waiting time, problems of, business., • P.D tends to normal distribution when A tends to 00, Coefficient of P.D:, •, •, , 3., , 131=, 132=, , 1/, 3+1/A, , Normal distribution:, • Discovered by de- Moivre in 1733 also called Gaussian, (A011)1111011., , Definition:, • A random variable x" is said to have a normal distribution, with parameters mean and variance and its probability, density function is defined as:, e-ip -(x-107), P (x) =, a, , Agricultural Statistics, , 401, , A Competitive Book of
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Properties of normal distribution:, • The curve of normal distribution is bell shaped, • It is symmetric about the mean, • Mean = Mode = Median (are equal)., • Quartiles are equi distance from median: Q3-Q2 = Q2- 0, • Coefficient of skewness for normal distribution is: Zero, • Coefficient of kurtosis for normal distribution is: 3, • Range of normal distribution is from: -00 to +00, • But practically range equal to 6a, • Mean deviation about mean: 4/5a, • Quartile deviation: 2/3a, Importance of normal distribution:, • It has got a large application in statistics quality control and, important area of statistics used in industries for setting, control limit., Correlation:, • It studies the relation or association between two variables., • Two independent variables are uncorrelated., • The measurement of correlation is called the correlation coefficient (r) or correlation index, which summarizes in one, figure the direction & degree of correlation., • Range of correlation are varies between +1 to -1., Types of correlation:, a. Positive/negative:, • If both the variables are varying in the same direction i.e., one is increasing the other also increasing and vice versa than, it is known as positive correlation., • If both the variables are varying in opposite direction i.e. as, one variable increasing the other is decreasing and vice versa, than it is known as the negative correlation., b. Simple, partial and multiple correlations:, • Simple correlation: when only two variables are studied., • Partial correlation: More than two variables are studied but, consider only two to be influencing each other, the effect of, other influencing variable being kept constant., Agricultural Statistics, , 402, , A Competitive Book of Agriculture
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•, , Multiple correlations: three or more variable are studied, , simultaneously., c. Linear and non linear correlation:, • If the amount of change in one variable tends to bear a, constant ratio to the amount of change in the other variable is, known as linear correlation., • If the amount of change in variable doesn't bear a constant, ratio to the amount of change in other variable is known as, non linear correlation., •, , In the most of the practical situations we find a non linear, relationship between variables., • Absence of any relationship between the variable the value, of correlation coefficient will be zero., Regression:, •, •, , Term regression first used by Sir Francis Galton in 1877., The regression analysis is a mathematical average, relationship between two or more variable. Relation may be, , linear or non linear., , •, •, , Original line of regression = y = a + bx, Range of regression is varies between: + oo to - oo, , Transfor matio n of data:, • When the data do not follow the normal distribution the, variate x i be transformed to some new variate say f(x1) in, such a way that f(x) is normally and independently distributed, with mean (N) & Variance (a 2), Types of transformation:, a. Square root transformation:, • Used when countable data have small values between 0-10 &, when data follow Poisson distribution., • It is also used for percentage data when all values are > 80 %., •, , E.g. Transformation = IN X, b. Logarithmic transformation:, • Used when variation in the countable data is large and values, are also large., E.g. Transformation = log x or log x+1, C. Angular or aresine transformation:, A Competitive Book of Agriculture, 403, Agricultural Statistics, •
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•, , Used for data following binomial distribution and when data, are in percentage based on count values., , •, , The percentage are transformed the degree., , •, , E.g. Sin = p/100, , Hypothesis:, •, Any statement about the population parameter., Test of hypothesis:, a., , Null hypothesis:, •, , A statement about parameters which to be rejected afier, testing is known as null hypothesis., Given by R.A. Fisher, It is denoted by 11-10, It is the hypothesis of no difference., , •, •, •, b., , Alternative hypothesis:, •, •, , This is the hypothesis contrary to the null hypothesis., Denoted by 111., , Types of error:, a. Type t" error:, •, •, b., , It denoted by Alfa (a)., Rejecting H o when it is true or accepting H1 when it is false., , Type 2"d error:, • Denoted by Beta (0), •, Accepting Ho when it is false, rejecting H i when it is true., •, It is more severe than type I error., , Level of significance:, •, •, , The maximum probability of committing type I error is, known as level of significance denoted by Alfa, Generally we take 5% (field ex.) or 1% level of significance., , Degree of freedom:, • It is difference in total number of items (n) & linear, , constraints., D.F. = N- Total number of constraints., D.F. — N -K (total no. of constraints), fest sionTeance:, i, a. Chi-square (x2) test:, • First used by Karl Pearson ( 1900), •, ", , Agricultureit stow/0, , 404, , A Competitive Book of Agriculture
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•, , It is used for enumerated or non parametric/qualitative data, in Mendelian or population genetics., Range: o to oo, X2 =, Doi - e 1) 2/ e 1, , •, •, , Conditions for applying x2 test:, • Total sample size > 50, •, , Expected frequency of each and every class should not be, less than 5., • The sample observation should be independent., Application of Chi-square:, • To test the goodness of fit, •, For testing the hypothesis about the ratios for various classes, • Testing the independence of two attributes, •, For detection of linkage, • To study gene frequencies in population genetics, • Test of significance of difference between two mean:, b. Z test/ student z test:, • Given by R.A. Fisher., •, Used when sample size is large > 30., c. Student t- test:, • Given by WS Gosset 1905, • Used when the sample size is small (<30)., Basic principle of field experimentation:, a., , Replication:, • Repetition of treatment under investigation is known as, replication so that each treatment experiences every type of, •, , b., , environment in the field., It increases precision, to estimate experimental error., , Randomization:, • Allocation of treatment to the various experimental units by a, , random process, It is minimizes the random variation., C. Local control/error control:, • The process of dividing the experimental material into, different groups called blocks to make them areiner, homogenous is known as local control/error control., •, , Agricultural Statistics, , 405, , A Competitive Book of Agricuitire
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•, , It reduce the experimental error hence make the test of, , significance more powerful., Treatment:, • The objects of comparison which an experiment has to try out, in the field or elsewhere for assessing their values are known, as treatment, •, , E.g. Varieties, manures, cultivation practices, methods of, seed treatment, insecticides etc are treatments used in case, of field experiment., Experimental unit:, • The group of material to which a treatment is applied in a, single trial of treatment., • E.g. A plot of land, a patient in hospital etc., Experimental error:, • The variation in the data due to uncontrolled factor is known, as experimental error., ANOVA:, • Analysis of variance, • The concept by R.A. Fisher, • It is a statistical technique of partitioning the total variation, into component variations & computing them by F test., Experimental design:, • A local structure of an experiment that helps in obtaining, results with some precision., a. CRD (completely randomized design):, • It is regarded as one way classification and no way control or, elimination, " Applied when the experimental material is limited and, homogenous, such as the soil in Pot experiments., • This provides the maximum number of degree of freedom, for error, for a given number of treatments as compared to, other design., • Local control not used in CRD., • Error degree of freedom in CRD: N -n2, b. RBD (randomized block design):, • Two way classification and one way control, Agroculturol Statistics, , 406, , A Competitive Book of Agriculture
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•, , This design appropriate when the fertility gradient in the field, is in one direction only, It is used up to 20 treatments without appreciable loss of, efficiency., In RBD the most number of blocks must be equal to the, number of replications fixed for ceach treatment., The number of plots in each block should be equal to the, number of treatments., , •, •, •, •, •, •, , It provides more accurate results than CRD due to formation, of homogenous blocks., It is most commonly used design in field experiment., This design utilizes all the three basic principles of field, , experimentation., c., , •, Error degree of freedom in RBD: (n-1) x (r-1)., LSD (Latin square design):, • Three way classification two way control of error, • The term square has been used in LSD because the number, of rows and columns are equal., • This design used when fertility gradient is in two directions., • Suitable for 5-8 treatments or from 5-12 at the most, • Because the minimum error degree of freedom should be 12, • Shouldn't be used for less than 5 treatments, • Number of replications = Number of treatment., • Number of rows = Number of column = Number of, •, , treatments., Randomization of treatments is done in such a way that each, treatments occurs once and only once in each row and each, , •, , column., Error degree of freedom in LSD: (n-1) x (n-2), , SPD (split plot design):, • A lay out in which one set of treatments is assigned to large, plots called main plots in to which a replicate is divided and, another set of treatments to sub divisions of the main plots, called sub plots is termed as a split plot design., This design used under following condition:, , d., , Agricultural Statistics, , 407, , A Competitive Book of Agriculture
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(i) When factors of the different nature are to be tested in same, experiment that is level of one factor require larger area as, compared to other factor eg. Depth of ploughing and, nitrogen levels, date of sowing and varieties, varieties and, nitrogen level, irrigation level and varieties., ii) When all factors aren't important, (iii) When the levels of one factor produce larger differences as, compared with the levels of other factor., (iv) When we want to study one factor with higher precision as, compared to other factor and take it in sub plots., e. SrPD (strip plot design):, •- This design is used when both the factors require relatively, large area., • In this case sub plot treatment is applied in strips instead of, randomizing in each unit., • In this design number of error is equal to the number of plot, size., Confidence limit:, • The range W ith in which the true populations mean lies is, called confidence limit or fiducially limit., Biometry:, ■ The application of statistical concepts and procedures to, study of biological problems., , Agricultural Stotsstics, , 408, , A Competitive Book of Agriculture
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1, , .7, , 4 ., , A, , N, , ir w, Total livestock population in India, (2009-10): 529.7 Million, ia, , •, , I, , Ai, , Share of world Ii ., t.tict( population in India: 15 %, .4 Cattle population in India: 205 millions, .1 Buffalo population:, 84, , Cattle disease that is co;ngu'unriCated to man is: Anthrax, Cow's milk is light yellow or creamy in colour due to:, Carotene, •, , V, •, •, •, ✓, •, ✓, ✓, ✓, ✓, ✓, ✓, , The milk is white in colour due to presence of: Casein, The carbohydrate or sugar constituent of the milk: Lactose, Milk is deficient in element: Iron, Milk production is maximum in: Uttar Pradesh, The state which is second in milk production is: Rajasthan, Fat globule in the milk are in the form of: Emulsion, Protein present in the milk in the form of: Colloidal, Lactose and Minerals are present in milk in the form of:, , Solution, Milk is the poor source of: Iron and Vitamin C, India ranks first in production of: Carpet wool, Best crop for silage making is: Maize, Temperature of artific:.. vagina: 42 °C, First clone of adult (sheep) animal: Dolly, In India wool production is maximum in: Rajasthan, , Disbudding in calf of newborn is done at the age of: 4-10, , ✓, , days, Swelling due to the collection of gases in rumen of the, , ✓, , animal is: Bloat, Protein, content in colostrums of cow is 12.8% & in buffalo, , •, , colostrums is: 21.4%, Generally runlinant have four chambers stomach eg. cattle,, sheep, goat, Seer except camel that has three chambered, , Milk is rich source of Calcium, Phosphorus and excellent, rumen., ✓, , source, India's of vitamin A., fir.st, world milk production , total, position, cattle production., buffaloes, wool production au., A Competitive Book of Agriculture, , Animal Production, , 409
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✓, •, , The world's first in vitro fertilized buffalo calf is: Pratham, , ✓, •, •, •, •, •, •, •, I, •, •, ✓, •, V, ✓, ✓, I, •, •, •, ✓, ✓, I, •, vf, , The most commonly used cryoprotectant for freezing of, semen: Glycerol, Collagen is the main proteins of skin/connective tissues, Canabalism is seen in poultry due to: Sodium chloride, deficiency, Cracked feet in poultry is caused by: Deficiency of biotin, Degnala and Alkali diseases are caused due to toxicity of:, Selenium, Crazy chick disease is caused by deficiency of: Vitamin E, Breed of poultry is excellent for broiler purpose: Plymouth, Rock, A pregnant cow doesn't come in heat due to presence of:, Corpus luteum, Animal protein factor is known as: Cobalamine, Fat content in double tonned milk is: 1.5 %, Hay can be stored if moisture per cent below: 16 %, Legal standard for solid not fat (SNF) in cow milk is: 8.5 %, Let down of milk in cow is due to: Secretion of atytoxine, Milk lipid is: lecithin, Scientific castration is done by using an instrument known as:, Burdizzo castrator, Only essential fatty acid of poultry is: Linolic acid, Glucose + Glucose = Maltose, Glucose + Fructose = Sucrose, Glucose + Glactose = Lactose (Milk sugar), Sulphur containing vitamins are: Thiamine and Biotin, Sulphur containing amino acids are: Cystine, Cysteine and, Methionine, The best way to prevent fatal septicaemia in young calves is, to make sure that they get: Colostrums, The biggest compartment of ruminant stomach is: Raman, The boiling point of milk is: 100.17 °C, The main storage polysaccharide in animal cells is: Glycogen, Casein constitute about 80 % of the total protein present in, milk, Animal Production, , 410, , A Competitive Book of Agriculture, , .. ."4
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✓, V, , The most variable constituent of milk is: Fat, The process of dehorning is accomplished by applying:, Castic potash, ✓, The poultry specially raised for meat production is known as:, Broiler, ✓, The protein which can't be digested: Elastin, V Which is used for treatment of oxalate poisoning: CaCo3, V Freshly drawn milk has a pH value of: 6.5-6.7, ✓, The disease in which animals aborts or gives birth to a dead, or weak calf is known as: Brucellosis, • The deficiency of manganese in poultry causes: Perosis, Parakeratosis is caused by the deficiency of: Zinc, ✓, Oxidation of fat is called: Beta oxidation, ✓, Protein which is soluble in water and heat coaguable is:, Albumin, , Pasteurization:, •, , It is done to kill all the pathogenic and most of the nonpathogenic bacteria eg. Clostridium botulinum., , Methods:, • Low Temperature Long Time (LTLT): Exposing of milk, •, •, , at 61-63 °C for 30 minutes., , High Temperature Short Time (HTST): About 71-76.6 °C, for 15 seconds., Ultra High Temperature (UHT): 148 °C 1- 5 seconds or 149, °C for 0. 5 sec. Followed by rapid cooling by 10 °C or below., , Common terms in live stock production:, Details, Group, Adult, , Cattle, Herd, , rOtIltry, , Bull, , Buffalo, Herd, Buffalo, , Sheep, Flock, Ram, , Goat, Flock, I3uck, , Pig, Drove, herd, Boar, , Flock, Cock, , male, Adult, , Cow, , bull, Buffalo, , Ewe, , Doe, , Sow, , Hen, , Young, female, , Bull, , Buffalo, , Male, , Male kid, , Boarling, , Cockrel, , male, Young, , calf, Heifer, , Calf, Heifer, , lamb, Female, , Female kid, , Female pielet, , Pullet, , female, New bom, , Calf, , calf, , calf, Buffalo, , lamb, Lamb, , Kid, , Piglet, , Chick, , calf, , Animal Production, , 411, , A Competitive Book of Agriculture
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Beef,, calfveal, Bullock, , Buffin, , Mutton, , Chevon, , Pork, , ( 'hicken, , Bullock, , Weeder, , Buck, , Hog. stage, , Capon, , male, Mating, , serving, , Serving, , 'nipping, , Serving, , Coupling, , Serving, , Parturition, , Calving, , Calving, , Lambing, , Kidding, , Farrowing, , Hatching, , Meat, , Casted-, , ., , Body temperature and gestation period of domesticated animals:, Gestation period, Live stock, Body temperature, —, cow, , (days), , ( °C), 38.5, , 101.5, , 282, , Buffalo, , 37.5, , 100, , 310, , Goat, , 39.1, , 102.5, , 148, , ' Sheep, , 38.9, , 102, , 150, , ,, , et"), , -, , Camel, , 390-410, , Pig, , ' 39.2, , 102.6, , 114, , Hen, , _ 41.7, , 107, , -, , Reproductive cycle of domestic animals:, Animals, , Puberty (females), (in months), , Cattle, , 30-42, , Buffaloes, , 30-42, , Goat, , Oestrous cycle, (days), 21 days ', , —, , Period of heat, 18 hours, , 21, , 27 hours, , 15-18, , 18-21, , 2-3 days, , Sheep, , 18, , 15-18, , 1-3 days, , Camel, _, , 36-48, , Animal Production, , 14, , 412, , -, , A Competitive Book of Agriculture
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• Stiff lamb disease: caused by Vitamin E deficiency., Goat Breeds of India:, ✓, Pashmina used in winter clothes is obtained from the animal:, Goats., ✓, Morocco: fine leather is prepared, from uoat, skin., _ _, _, _, SN, , Name of breed, , 1, , Jamunapari, , -, , Native place, , Features, , Etawa (UP), , Dual purposes breed., Pendulated curved long ears,, 'roman nose' and thick long, hairs on hind legs are major, characters, Dairy breed, suitable for towns, and cities., Usually give birth two kids, (twins) in one parturition, Resembles as `Jamunaparr., Presence of beard in male, , 2, , Barbari, , Somali (Africa), , 3, , Beetul, , Gurdaspur (PB), , 4, , Black Bengal, , Western Bengal, , 5, , Marwari, , Marwar (Raj), , Excellent for meat (RPSC, AO09), :, Disease resistant breed, , 6, , Sirohi, , Sirohi (Raj), , Dual purpose breed, , Exotic breeds of dairy goat:, Angora:, •, Native of Turkey, Alpine:, •, , Europe (milk breed), , Anglo-Nubian:, •, It is cross between Jamunapari and Nubian (England)., •, Known as 'Jersey cow', Saanen:, •, Native of Switzerland; presence of beard in both the sexes is, •, , the characteristic feature., This breed is also known as Queen of Goats., , Toggenberg:, Animal Production, , 416, , _, , A Competitive Book of Agriculture, , _
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• Chocolate colour, • Hornless breed, • Native of Switzerland., • Milk breed, Swine:, • Salted smoked meat of Pig is known as Bacon., Exotic Breeds of swine:, • Lind race: white in colour: native of Denmark., • Duroc: red in colour: native of USA., • Yorkshire: white in colour: native of U.K., , Viral diseases of cattle:, • Swine fever, , Pox, • FMD, Plague, • Blue tongue, New castle (Ranikhet), • Leucosis, Rinderpest, • Marek' s, Bronchitis, Fungal diseases:, Ringworm, • Bronchomycosis, Aflatoxicosis, • Brooder pneumonia, Protozoa diseases:, Anaplasmosis, • Coccidiosis, Trypanosomiasis (surra), • Theileriasis, Bacterial diseases:, • Anthrax (Bacilus anthrasis) Black quarter, • Brucellosis, Mastitis, •, (P. maltocida), Pneumonia, • Tuberculosis, Cholera, •, , Typhoid, , rvj, Poultry breeds:, SN Name, 1, Rod Island Red, , Native, America, , Features, Dual purpose breed, produce, 100 eggs/year, live Book of Agriculture, , Animal Production, , 43.7, , A, , Competi
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2, , White Leghorn, , Highest eggs production breed-, , Italy, , in world, 220 eggs/year, 3, , Red Cornish, , 4, , Plymouth Rock, Aseel, Kadaknath, , 5, 6, , •, , England, America, UP, -, , _ Famous in America for meat, Produce best quality meat, , Famous for fighting sports, Black coloured meat, , •, , A medium sized egg contains 6.0 g protein, 6.5 g CaCO3, 14, g Vitamin., Andhra Pradesh has largest number of poultry and is the, , •, •, , largest producer of eggs in India., Colour of egg yolk is due to the pigment: Xanthophyll., Usually internal quality of eggs can be determined by:, Candling., , •, , In our tropical climate necessary to construct poultry house, East to West in order to avoid sun ray directly falling into, the shed and heating up of the shed., Important disease of poultry:, • Bacterial diseases:, Fowl Cholera, Diarrhea, • Viral diseases:, Ranikhet, Marek's disease, • Protozoal disease:, Coccidiosis, Nutritional diseases:, •, •, •, , Nutritional roup:, Vitamin A deficiency, Rickets:, Vitamin D deficiency, Curled toe paralysis itatnin B 2 deficiency, Fish production:, 1' India is the second largest fish producer from inland sources, after China., ✓ Maximum fish production is in, West Bengal., . / Maximum marine fish production is in Gujarat., ✓, Largest contributor in agricultural export:, Marine, products., Terminology:, I. Alveolus: A small structure in mammary glands in which, milk is manufactured by female., Animal Production, , 418, , A Competitive Book of Agriculture, , _, , -
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2. Anorexia: Lack of appetite., 3. Biological value: Percentage utilization protein within animal, , body., 4. Crude fiber: Composed of cellulose, hemi cellulose,, , etc. it is high in forage and other poly saccharides and low inn, grain., 5. Culling: The separation of diseased animals from healthy, animals., 6. Casting: Throwing the animals on the ground, 7. Docking: Removal of tail in sheep., 8. Flushing: Feeding extra concentrates to pregnant sheep is, known as flushing., 9. Dehorning: Suppression of emerging horn in goat at an age, of 10 days., 10. Mohair: The hair of Angora breed of goats, soft white wool, in great demand for clothing., 11. Pashmina: The undercoat of Kashmiri goats, soft wool in, great demand for clothing., 12. Pica: An appetite for materials not usually considered to be, food such as is observed in phosphorus deficient animals; a, , deprived appetite., , 13. Puberty: The period of life at which the reproductive organ, first become functional. This characterized by estrus and, , ovulation in the female and semen production in the male., 14. Surra: Common disease in camel caused by protozoa., , A Competitive Book of Agriculture, Animal Production, , 419
