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1, , Introduction to Romanticism- Part 1, Objectives, This module would enable the student to:, •, •, •, •, •, •, , Comprehend the background to the study of the Romantic Movement., Understand the causes for the evolution of the Romantic period in literature., Frame the precepts of the Transitional poets., Outline the features of the Romantic period in literature., Delineate the Romantic poets and their contribution to literature., Trace the contribution of the Romantic poets to the growth of Romanticism as a, revolution against the Neoclassical school of poetry, , Romanticism: The Movement, Romanticism, as a distinctive movement in the history of Western civilization, is of, immense significance because it initiated a unique approach to the study of literature,, music, art, architecture, painting, criticism and historiography. This literary epoch, announced its arrival with the publication of the Lyrical Ballads, a volume of poems, anonymously published by William Wordsworth and Samuel Taylor Coleridge in 1798,, which marked a conscious and deliberate turning away from the Neoclassical tenets that, had exerted a near complete control over English poetry for more than a century. The, volume opened with Coleridge’s long poem “The Rime of the Ancient Mariner” and closed, with Wordsworth’s “Tintern Abbey.” Wordsworth’s “Preface” to the second edition (1800), of the Lyrical Ballads, in which he described poetry as “the spontaneous overflow of, powerful feelings,” became the manifesto of the English Romantic Movement in poetry., The Romantic poets gravitated towards a new way of expressing their thoughts on nature, and subjectivity, and their affinity for nature, which subsequently proved to be enormously, influential in the process of poetic creation., The Neoclassic Period, The Neoclassical Movement of the seventeenth century initially emerged in France., The Neoclassical age in English literature, which began in the late seventeenth century, and continued to the eighteenth century has been variously called as ‘Pseudo-classical, Age’, ‘Augustan Age’ or even the ‘Classical period’. Neoclassicism stressed the need to, respect rules and principles of literature, especially the revival of the approach of the, Classics, the Greeks, who considered the supremacy of reason, order, logic, accuracy, and structure over emotions, personal feelings and subjectivity. The age was dominated, by the ideas of Materialism and Empirical Science., The writings of philosophers like Thomas Hobbes, John Locke and Joseph Butler, shaped the thoughts of the people of the age. The philosophical empiricism of the age,, propagated through the writings of Francis Bacon, Hobbes and Locke were supported, and validated by the advancement of empirical science. Writers of the age assumed a, parochial stance with regard to affairs of men, morals, manners and politics that was more, practical rather than ideal, and these aspects dominated their concerns.

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2, , The age is characterised by imitation of the Classics of the ancient Greek and Roman, literature, and a firm concern with general human nature, which was considered static, and standard by Homer and Horace. The feelings and thoughts of ordinary men and, women were not worthy of attention. Man was considered insignificant and he possessed, limited powers. Man was admonished for excess pride, as reflected in the works of the, period., The thinkers of the age considered reason, logic and objectivity to be the standards to, be maintained with regard to religious beliefs, literature and morality. The didactic function, of poetry was considered more important than the aesthetic one. Poetic justice was, considered necessary so that virtue was rewarded and vice, punished. Emotion and the, use imagination in writings were restricted. Writers were forced to adhere to regulations, in language and tried and tested custom was regarded the standard for good writing., Vocabulary was enlarged and grammar was regularised. The use of compound words, and epithets was common and ordinary words were avoided. This popularised the use of, artificial poetic diction, which gained prime import., Causes for the Rise of Romanticism, Political Causes, The French Revolution (1789-90) and the American Declaration of Independence, (1776) called for political freedom. The widely influential, three-fold slogan of “Liberty,, Equality and Fraternity” was embraced by the Romantics like William Wordsworth and, Percy Bysshe Shelley. Revolt against authority and love of freedom were evident in the, spirit of individualism and humanitarianism, which was at the core of the Romantic, Revival of the nineteenth century. The movement imbibed the political writings of, Rousseau, as they denounced aristocracy and religious dogmatism., Influence of French and German Writers and Thinkers, William Wordsworth was influenced by Voltaire’s explication of the link between God, and nature and Jean-Jacques Rousseau’s veneration of nature. The poetry of, Wordsworth abounds in Pantheism, which is the belief that God is omnipresent., Edmund’s Burke’s A Vindication of Natural Society (1756) and William Godwin’s Enquiry, Concerning Political Justice (1793) were largely responsible for the anarchic ideas in the, social and political outlook of the poetry of Percy Bysshe Shelley and Lord Byron., The French writer Rousseau, the German writers like Immanuel Kant, Hegel and, Friedrich Schiller influenced the thinking of the English writers of the period. Rousseau’s, slogans like “go back to nature” and “man is born free” became the motto of the Romantic, period that spread to Europe and America. Rousseau’s emphasis on the dignity of man, as a human being endowed with humaneness and the inseparable connection between, nature and man that affected human sensibility had a profound influence on the Romantic, Movement. Rousseau’s Emile (1763) and The Social Contract (1762) heralded Romantic, Humanism, which emphasised equal and natural rights of every individual, on the one, hand and preached the regenerating power of love on the other., Literary Influences, The Schlegel brothers, August Wilhelm Schlegel and Friedrich Schlegel, along with, Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling of Germany propagated the aesthetic view of art. A

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3, , clear distinction between Classicism and Romanticism was put forth by August Wilhelm, Schlegel. He believed that Classicism is an artistic search for a perfect and ordered world, and Romanticism, in contrast, is a secret longing of the soul for the chaos that underlies, all creation that strives for new births. Schelling gave emphasis to imagination in poetry., He explained that the poet is endowed with a vision that is presented in poetry. Hence he, is not bound by rules and restrictions. The publication of Reliques of Ancient English, Poetry in 1765 by Bishop Thomas Percy and the influence of scholars like Thomas Gray, and Thomas Warton also gave impetus to the appeal for medieval songs, ballads and, romances. This way, the poets tried to highlight the beauty and charm of this new form of, literature., Role of the Reviewers, The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire (1776-1789) by Edward Gibbon viewed, ancient, medieval and modern literature as a whole. The reviewers judged works of, literature on the basis of their own preferences and not on the basis of rules. Though this, method is prejudiced and judgemental in nature, it ushered in the rise of Impressionism, and individualism, which are considered the essential precepts of Romanticism., Other Reasons, The English temperament could never subscribe slavishly to rules. The love of liberty, and spirit of free enquiry questioned pseudo-classical rules, which exposed the limitations, of the Neoclassic period. The Romantic Movement was vocal in its disagreement with the, Neoclassical notions regarding the slavish adherence to rules and regulations, about, poetic composition, the excessive insistence on logic and reason and the meticulous, observation of standards of composition, and objectivity in artistic creativity., Characteristic Features of Romanticism, • While imagination and emotion are emphasised, reason and logic are not encouraged., Poetic fervour, enthusiasm and spontaneity are considered the dominant modes of, expression for poetry. The poets wrote poetry in free style, seldom adhering to any, rules and regulations imposed from without., • Liberty and freedom of the individual is considered pivotal to artistic representation., Self-expression and individualism are the core aspects that explore the essentials of, imagination which are more important than objectivity and scientific truth. Keen, observation, reaction, and perceptions of the poet, who is sensitive to the changes in, the world are cherished., • Subjectivity is the fundamental and defining feature of this period. The poets of this, epoch imparted subjective interpretations to the objective realities of life. “The, Romantic Movement,” says William J. Long “was the expression of individual genius, rather than of the established rules.”, •, , Nature is seen as a living entity or force and man’s link to nature should be positive,, which means that a symbiotic relationship should be maintained. Nature is benevolent, and divine and has immense powers that need to be explored. However, exploitation, of nature, industrialisation, emergence of factories and the resulting pollution seem to, have severed man’s attachment to nature. Shelley was an atheist, and for a while, Wordsworth was a Pantheist.

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4, , •, , •, •, •, •, •, , •, •, •, , The Romantics celebrated the beauty of nature in its various dimensions. Wordsworth, equated nature with God; Coleridge described the mysterious power of nature; Shelley, praised the force and power of nature. His revolutionary spirit was nurtured by the, influence and vigour of nature and, Keats admired the sensuous beauty of nature., Poets like Coleridge and Sir Walter Scott provided a sense of wonder and mystery to, poetry. It was this interest in the supernatural element that extended the medieval, atmosphere of wonder and mystery to Romantic poetry., The capacity to wonder and marvel at the freshness and innocence of the vision of, childhood is vividly expressed in the poetry of Wordsworth and Shelley., Imagination is seen as a creative faculty that enhances the ability to spiritually connect, with nature and explain the reasons for man’s association with nature. This feature is, predominant in the poems of Samuel Coleridge., An abiding interest in ballads, folk songs, medieval literature and art forms, and Greek, and Roman mythology rejuvenated the mind and soul of the poets, who disregarded, the Neoclassic insistence on decorum., The poetry of the eighteenth century dealt with the life of the so-called fashionable, society, clubs and coffee houses, drawing rooms, and the social and political life of, London. Neoclassical poetry was essentially urban-centered. In contrast, the primary, concern of the Romantics was the ordinary life of people, specifically the rustics living, in the countryside. Romantic poetry is marked by intense human sympathy and a, consequent understanding of the intense passions and emotions of the human heart., The poet is seen as an individual, who is endowed with a certain vision and his role in, society is that of a prophet, who is gifted with the power to anticipate social and political, changes., In Romantic poetry, lyricism predominates and the poets of this school use melody and, sweetness of tone in their poems., The style of the Romantic poets is diverse but instead of an artificial mode of depiction, of the Classical poets, the Romantic poets prefer natural diction and spontaneous, expression of thoughts in their poetry. There is a strong reaction against the heroic, couplet, regarded the only eligible verse unit by the Neoclassics. The Romantic poets, intentionally experiment with new measures and stanzaic forms to announce the, beginning of literary compositions of a newer order., , The Romantics, The Precursors of the Romantic Movement, The Romantic Movement began in England, in 1798 with the publication of the, Lyrical Ballads. However, some of the characteristic features of the poetry of the Romantic, poets could be traced to the poetry of James Thomson, William Collins, Thomas Gray,, William Cowper, Oliver Goldsmith, Thomas Percy, Thomas Chatterton and James, Macpherson, who are recognised as the precursors of the Romantic Revival. These poets, of the eighteenth century exhibited some of the features particular to Romanticism;, however, they retained some of the old conventions. The Transitional poets stand midway between a tendency to break away from the Neoclassic tradition and adopt the spirit

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5, , of the Romantic Movement. For this reason, they are known as “transitional” poets or, the precursors of the Romantic Revival, or simply, the “Pre- Romantics”., , The Elements of Romanticism in the Poetry of the Transitional Poets, •, •, , •, •, , •, •, , These poets ascribe to what Victor Hugo describes as “liberalism in literature”. They, give importance to poetic inspiration and enthusiasm and are less concerned about, systems, techniques, rules and conventions., Their poetry is devoid of reason, intellectual commitment in content, nature and, treatment of subjects of poetry. The warmth of passion, emotion, and the application, of imagination are appraised and followed. Hudson mentions that their poetry shows, “a love of the wild, fantastic, abnormal, and supernatural.”, The comments on general human nature, which the Neoclassical poetry prefers is, completely neglected. Their interests are not limited to the shallow description of urban, life or the manners and trivial incidents that the Neoclassicists proffered., The individual rather than the society is given preference. Their poetry is more, subjective in terms of content and subject. A democratic spirit, coupled with a greater, concern for the ordinary, rustic life, the poor and downtrodden, forms their primary, poetic concern., The literature and art of the Middle Ages, which John Dryden and Alexander Pope had, neglected on account of their alleged coarseness became a matter of study and, interest., There is a strong reaction against the heroic couplet, which is considered by the, Neoclassics as the only appropriate meter for verse. New stanzaic forms and meter, are also attempted., The Transitional Poets, , •, , James Thomson (1700-48) is a Scottish poet. His poetry is known to have given, expression to the achievements of Newtonian science and to an England moving, forward to achieving political power on account of growing economic stability and, military strength. His Seasons (1726-30) is important for its accurate and sympathetic, descriptions of natural scenes. The poem is written in blank verse. It is the first, sustained nature poem in English and concludes with “Hymn to Nature.” Thomson was, of the opinion that the scientist and the poet must collaborate in the service of, God, and this notion is expressed in To the Memory of Sir Isaac Newton (1727). Liberty, is another very long poem, in which Liberty herself is made to narrate her career, through the ages in Greece, Rome, and England. His Castle of Indolence (1748) is in, Spenserian stanzaic form, and it captures much of the luxuriant, imaginative colour of, the Elizabethan poet.

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6, , •, , Oliver Goldsmith (1728-74) is an Anglo-Irish writer and poet. In 1760, Goldsmith, began to publish a series of letters in “Public Ledger” under the title The Citizen of the, World. His important poems, The Traveller (1764) and The Deserted Village (1770) are, in heroic couplets. The first poem is didactic and concerned with the description and, criticism of the places and people in Europe, which Goldsmith had visited as a tramp., The second poem is rich in natural descriptions and vibrant with a peculiar note of, sentiment and melancholy, which foreshadows the nineteenth-century Romantics. As, in the first poem, Goldsmith exhibits the tenderness of his feelings for the poor villagers., Goldsmith wrote this Romantic ballad of precisely one hundred lines in 1765. This, poem appears under the title “A Ballad” sung by the character Mr. Burchell in chapter, eight of Goldsmith’s novel The Vicar of Wakefield. His important poems include “An, Elegy On The Death Of A Mad Dog” , “The Deserted Village”, “The Village, Schoolmaster”, “A New Simile”, “A Sonnet”, “When Lovely Woman Stoops To Folly”, , “Epilogue to 'She Stoops To Conquer'” “An Elegy on the Glory of Her Sex, Mrs. Mary, Blaze” and “Memory”., , •, , Thomas Percy (1728-1811): Percy is known in the history of English literature not for, original poetry but also his compilation of ballads, sonnets, historical songs, and, metrical romances, which he published in 1765 under the title Reliques of Ancient, English Poetry., , •, , Thomas Chatterton (1752-70): The poems like “Aella” and “The Ballad of Charity” are,, according to Hudson, quite remarkable for two reasons- “because they are probably, the most wonderful things ever written by a boy of Chatterton's age, and because they, are another clear indication of the fast growing curiosity of critics and the public, regarding everything belonging to the middle ages.", , •, , James Macpherson (1736-96): He first achieved fame with Fragments of Ancient, Poetry Collected in the Highlands of Scotland, translated from the Gaelic or Erse, language, which were given out to be “genuine remains of ancient Scottish poetry.”, Later he produced Fingal, an Epic Poem in Six Books (1762), and then Temora, an, Epic Poem in Eight Books (1763)., , •, , Thomas Gray (1716-71): Gray was one of the most learned men of the Europe of his, day. He started his career as a Classicist and ended a genuine Romantic. His work,, according to Hudson, is “a kind of epitome of the changes which were coming over the, literature of his time.” Gray had begun to write English poems by 1742. “Ode on the, Spring,” “Sonnet on the Death of Mr. Richard West,” “Hymn to Adversity,” and “Ode on, a Distant Prospect of Eton College” are considered some of the best poems written in, the period.These poems revealed his maturity, dexterity of expression, wistful, melancholy, and the ability to phrase truisms in striking, quotable lines, such as “where, ignorance is bliss, ’Tis folly to be wise.”

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7, , The Eton ode was published in 1747 and again in 1748 along with “Ode on the, Spring.” “The Alliance of Education and Government” and the ode “On a Distant, Prospect of Eton College” were Classical in spirit and employed the heroic couplet., “Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard” is Gray’s finest poem which earned him the, praise of even Dr. Samuel Johnson, who condemned most of Gray's poetry. Gray’s, poems “The Progress of Poesy” and “The Bard” present a new conception of the poet, who is not as a clever versifier but a genuinely inspired and prophetic genius. His last, poems “The Fatal Sisters” and “The Desert of Odin” are Romantic fragments with which, the literature of the period steps out of the eighteenth century and finds the transition, in the full stream of Romanticism., •, , William Collins (1721-59): He combines in himself the Neoclassic and Romantic, elements, though he is not without a specific manner which is all his own. His “Ode on, the Popular Superstitions of the Highlands” foreshadows the world in which Coleridge, delighted. He is chiefly known for his odes. “To Liberty” and “Ode on the Popular, Superstitions of the Highlands” are the lengthiest of Collins’ odes., , •, , William Cowper (1731-1800): Cowper is one of the most widely read English poets of, his day, whose most characteristic work, as in The Task (1785) or the melodious, short lyric “The Poplar Trees,” brought a new directness to the eighteenth-century, nature poetry. Cowper wrote of the joys and sorrows of everyday life and was content, to describe the minute details of the countryside. His chief concern for the poor and, downtrodden and his comparative simplicity of language is in sharp contrast to, eighteenth-century verse. Therefore, he is considered the forerunner of Robert Burns,, William Wordsworth, and Samuel Taylor Coleridge. While there is humour in his verse,, the sense of desolation is revealed in many of his poems, notably “The Castaway.”, Cowper collaborated with John Newton, a book of religious verse, eventually, published as Olney Hymns (1779).There is tenderness in the poem “My Mother's, Picture”. Robert Southey edited his writings in fifteen volumes between 1835 and 1837., Cowper is also considered one of the best letter writers in English, and some of his, hymns, such as “God Moves in a Mysterious Way” and “Oh! For a Closer Walk with, God,” have become part of the folk heritage of Protestant England. The Letters and, Prose Writings, in two volumes, edited by James King and Charles Ryskamp, were, published in the period 1979–80. However, Compton-Rickett maintains: “We shall find, in his work neither the passion nor the strangeness of the Romantic school. Much in, his nature disposed to shape him as a poet of Classicism, and with occasional reserves, he is far more of a Classical poet than a Romantic.”, , •, , George Crabbe (1754-1832): Crabbe grew up in the then impoverished seacoast, village of Aldeburgh. In 1781, he wrote a desperate letter of appeal to Edmund Burke,, who read Crabbe’s writings and persuaded James Dodsley to publish one of his

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8, , didactic, descriptive poems, The Library (1781). In 1783, Crabbe published his poem, “The Village”, which was considered a part protest against Oliver Goldsmith’s “The, Deserted Village” (1770). Crabbe thought the poem to be too sentimental and idyllic., Crabbe made his detailed observation of life in the bleak countryside from which he, himself came in his poem. “The Village” was popular but was followed by a rather, insipid poem “The Newspaper” (1785)., Since then he did not publish poetry for the next twenty-two years. He did continue, to write, contributing to John Nichols’ The History and Antiquities of the County of, Leicester (1795–1815) and other works of local history; he also wrote a treatise on, botany and three novels, all of which he later burned. Crabbe is often called the last of, the Augustan poets because he followed John Dryden, Alexander Pope, and Samuel, Johnson in using the heroic couplet, which he handled deftly. He mostly continued the, Neoclassic tradition and was derisively dubbed as “a Pope in worsted stockings.”, Summary, The Romantic period in literature marked an era that revolutionised the concept of, literature in terms of poetic output and the contribution of the poet to the study of literature., Guided by the spirit of the French Revolution, the Romantics called for subjectivity and, emotional appeal rather than the pursuit of intellectual, logical and reasoning capacities., The Romantics believed that the poet was a person who had a larger role to play in the, society. The most significant aspect of the Romantic Movement was the importance, ascribed to nature, and man’s crucial connection with the animate and the inanimate in, nature. With the publication of Lyrical Ballads in 1798, the literary field witnessed a, purposeful turn from the Neoclassic views that gave importance to conventional practices,, decorum and form in poetic creation., The period is categorised by intense emotional appeal, turn to nature, experiments, with poetic forms and humaneness. The period saw the influence of the philosophy of, Rousseau, Kant, Hegel and Schiller; their inspiration became the cause for announcing, the inexplicable connection between all things in the universe, and hence implored man, to maintain a harmonious relationship with nature., , Glossary, •, , tenet: doctrine, , •, , affinity: understanding, , •, •, •, •, , propel: drive, empirical: pragmatic, parochial: insular; narrow-minded, epithet: adjective or phrase that expresses a quality or attribute, which is, characteristic of the person or thing mentioned.

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9, , •, •, •, •, •, •, •, •, , •, •, •, , •, , •, •, , •, •, , dogmatism: rigidity, impetus: thrust; drive, proffer: offer, truism: axiom; a true statement that says nothing novel or interesting., deftly: skillfully, Materialism: The view that only material things are real. Thomas Hobbes defended the, concept of Materialism in metaphysics., Empirical Science: The philosophy that all matters of fact derives from experience and, that the mind is not provided with a set of concepts prior to experience., Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679): English philosopher, scientist and historian known for, his political philosophy, especially as expressed in his magnum opus Leviathan (1651),, which deals with the civil obligations of the believers of Christianity and the roles of a, Church within a state., John Locke (1632-1704): English philosopher whose writings formed the basis of, modern philosophical empiricism and political liberalism., Joseph Butler (1692-1752): Bishop of Church of England, moral philosopher and, preacher to the Royal Court. He defended religion against the rationalists of the period., Voltaire (1694-1778): Voltaire is the pseudonym of Francois Marie-Arouet. He is a, French writer who fought against tyranny, bigotry and cruelty. He believed that social, progress could be achieved through reason, which cannot be questioned by religious, and political authorities., Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778): He is a French philosopher, writer and political, theorist whose political treaties and fiction influenced the leaders of the French, Revolution and the Romantic Movement., Immanuel Kant (1724-1804): The German philosopher who worked extensively on, aesthetics, ethics and epistemology that later influenced philosophy., Bishop Thomas Percy (1729-1811): British scholar known for his collection of ballads, Reliques of Ancient English Poetry (1765) that renewed the interest in English and, Scottish songs., Victor Hugo (1802-1885): A French poet, novelist and dramatist known for his novels, Notre-Dame de Paris (1831) and Les Misérables (1862)., Edmund Burke (1729-1797): The British philosopher and statesman, who advocated, conservatism against Jacobinism in Reflections on the Revolution in France (1790).

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10, , •, •, , •, , •, , •, , •, •, , Francis Bacon (1561-1626): Sir Francis Bacon is a renowned British author,, philosopher and statesman remembered for his worldly wisdom expressed in his essays., William Godwin (1756-1836): The British social philosopher, political journalist, and, religious nonconformist who predicted the English Romantic literary movement with his, writings propagating atheistic thoughts, anarchy and personal freedom. He is regarded, one of the first exponents of utilitarianism., Friedrich Schiller (1759-1805): The German poet, dramatist and literary theorist known, for his plays Die Räuber (1781; The Robbers),The Wallenstein Trilogy (1800–01), Maria, Stuart (1801), and Wilhelm Tell (1804)., Hegel (1770-1831): Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel is a German philosopher and, absolute idealist inspired by Christian beliefs, who reiterated the progress of history and, of ideas from thesis to anitithesis and further to synthesis., Samuel Johnson (1709-1784): Known in literary circles as Dr.Johnson, he is a critic, biographer, essayist, post and lexicographer, who is regarded Britain’s greatest literary, figures of the eighteenth century., John Dryden (1631-1700): English poet, dramatist and literary critic who occupied the, towered the literature of his days and the period came to be known as the Age of Dryden., Alexander Pope (1988-1744): British poet and satirist of the Augustan period in the, history of English literature. He is recognized for his poems, An Essay on, Criticism (1711), The Rape of the Lock (1712–14), The Dunciad (1728), and An Essay, on Man (1733–34)., , References, Web Links, • Encyclopaedia Britannica https://www.britannica.com/event/Pre-Romanticism, • Encyclopaedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/art/Romanticism, • https://www.poetryfoundation.org/, • https://www.poets.org/, • http://neoclassical-poetry.bloomyebooks.com/p/the-age.html, • Romantic poetry. http://crossref-it.info/articles/361/romantic-poetry, Suggested Reading, • Blanning,Tim The Romantic Revolution: A History. Modern Library, 2010., • David, B. Pirie. The Romantic Period: The Penguin History of Literature.Penguin, 1994., • Duncan, Wu. Romanticism: An Anthology. 4th ed., Blackwell, 2012.

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11, , •, •, , Jerome, J. McGann. The New Oxford Book of Romantic Period Verse. Oxford UP,1993., Natarajan, Uttara. The Romantic Poets. Blackwell Publishing Limited, 2007., , Frequently Asked Questions (FAQ), I. Answer the following questions in two or three sentences, 1. When is the Romantic period said to have begun?, a. The Romantic period is said to have begun in 1978 with the publication of William, Wordsworth’s Lyrical Ballads., 2. Name the precursors of the Romantic Movement?, a. James Thomson, William Collins, Thomas Gray and William Cowper., 3. What was the role of the reviewers in spreading the Romantic Movement?, a. The reviewers estimated the worth of works of literature by considering their own, preferences and not the rules. This method is prejudiced and judgmental in nature,, but was also responsible for the rise of impressionism and individualism, which are, inevitable to the rise of Romanticism., 4. Why are some poets known as transitional poets?, a. Some of the poets of the eighteenth century shared the features of both the Romantics, and the Neoclassicists. While they revealed some of the characteristic features of, Romanticism in their poems, they could not break away from the old conventions of, the earlier movement. They stood mid-way between a dying tradition and a new one, surfacing. Hence, they are known as “transitional” poets., 5. What is important about Queen Mab: A Philosophical Poem?, a. The poem emerged from Shelley’s friendship with the British philosopher William, Godwin and it expressed Godwin’s free-thinking Socialist philosophy., II.Answer the questions in a paragraph of 100 words, 1. The Neoclassic period, a. Hints: Began in France- late seventeenth century to the eighteenth century -Pseudoclassical Age, Augustan Age or even the Classical period- respect for the rules –, concerned with human nature-intellectual backlash against Puritanism and America’s, revolution against England- ideas of Materialism and Empirical Science-Thomas, Hobbes, John Locke and Joseph Butler, Francis Bacon- parochial stance with regard, to affairs of men, morals, manners and politics-imitation of the Classics-man, considered insignificant – man admonished for excess pride- reflected in the works of

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12, , the period- reason, logic and objectivity- the didactic function of poetry- poetic justiceemotion and imagination in writings not preferred- adhere to regulations in languageordinary words avoided- artificial poetic diction, 2. The first-generation Romantics., a. Hints: Known as the Lake Poets - attachment to the Lake District in the North-west of, England. William Wordsworth – his works- Samuel Taylor Coleridge - his contributionRobert Southey- Charles Lamb- Southey- their contribution, 3. Differences between the Romantic and the Neoclassic periods., a. Hints: Romantic period- Emphasise imagination and emotion -enthusiasm and, spontaneity -freestyle without following any rules and regulations -liberty and freedom, of the individual -Subjectivity is important- adherence to nature- supernatural- ordinary, life of people- lyricism- Interest in ballads, folk songs, medieval literature and art formsimportant Romantics- their works., Neoclassic period: Reason and good sense- objectivity and scientific truth- artificial, mode of expression- rules and regulation- revival of the Classics- didacticism- poetic, justice- language of prose and poetry- important neo-classics- their works., III. Answer the following questions in an essay of about 250 words, 1. The Romantic Movement in English literature, a. Hints: Explain the period- causes for the rise of Romanticism-Features of, Romanticism., 2. The Transitional poets, a. Hints: Name the transitional poets- the reason why they are called transition poetscharacteristic features of transitional poetry., 3. The characteristic features of Romanticism, a. Hints: Elaborate- emotion-imagination-subjectivity-return to nature- supernaturalordinary life- no affectations- lyricism and the other features., 4. Causes for the rise of Romanticism., a. Hints: Explain Political causes- Influence of French and German writers and thinkersliterary influences- role of the Reviewers- other reasons., , ----------------------------------