Page 2 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Learning Objectives, In this chapter you will learn about:, § Computer, § Data processing, § Characteristic features of computers, § Computers’ evolution to their present form, § Computer generations, § Characteristic features of each computer generation, , Ref Page 01, , Chapter 1: Introduction to Computers, , Slide 2/17, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 3 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Computer, § The word computer comes from the word “compute”,, which means, “to calculate”, § Thereby, a computer is an electronic device that can, perform arithmetic operations at high speed, § A computer is also called a data processor because it can, store, process, and retrieve data whenever desired, , Ref Page 01, , Chapter 1: Introduction to Computers, , Slide 3/17, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 4 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Data Processing, The activity of processing data using a computer is called, data processing, Data, Capture Data, Manipulate Data, Output Results, Information, Data is raw material used as input and information is, processed data obtained as output of data processing, , Ref Page 01, , Chapter 1: Introduction to Computers, , Slide 4/17, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 5 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Characteristics of Computers, 1) Automatic: Given a job, computer can work on it, automatically without human interventions, 2) Speed: Computer can perform data processing jobs, very fast, usually measured in microseconds (10-6),, nanoseconds (10-9), and picoseconds (10-12), 3) Accuracy: Accuracy of a computer is consistently high, and the degree of its accuracy depends upon its design., Computer errors caused due to incorrect input data or, unreliable programs are often referred to as GarbageIn-Garbage-Out (GIGO), (Continued on next slide), , Ref Page 02, , Chapter 1: Introduction to Computers, , Slide 5/17, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 6 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Characteristics of Computers, (Continued from previous slide..), , 4) Diligence: Computer is free from monotony, tiredness,, and lack of concentration. It can continuously work for, hours without creating any error and without grumbling, 5) Versatility: Computer is capable of performing almost, any task, if the task can be reduced to a finite series of, logical steps, 6) Power of Remembering: Computer can store and, recall any amount of information because of its, secondary storage capability. It forgets or looses certain, information only when it is asked to do so, (Continued on next slide), , Ref Page 02, , Chapter 1: Introduction to Computers, , Slide 6/17, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 7 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Characteristics of Computers, (Continued from previous slide..), , 7) No I.Q.: A computer does only what it is programmed, to do. It cannot take its own decision in this regard, 8) No Feelings: Computers are devoid of emotions. Their, judgement is based on the instructions given to them in, the form of programs that are written by us (human, beings), , (Continued on next slide), , Ref Page 03, , Chapter 1: Introduction to Computers, , Slide 7/17, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 8 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Evolution of Computers, § Blaise Pascal invented the first mechanical adding, machine in 1642, § Baron Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibniz invented the first, calculator for multiplication in 1671, § Keyboard machines originated in the United States, around 1880, § Around 1880, Herman Hollerith came up with the concept, of punched cards that were extensively used as input, media until late 1970s, , Ref Page 03, , Chapter 1: Introduction to Computers, , Slide 8/17, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 9 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Evolution of Computers, (Continued from previous slide..), , § Charles Babbage is considered to be the father of, modern digital computers, §, , He designed “Difference Engine” in 1822, , §, , He designed a fully automatic analytical engine in, 1842 for performing basic arithmetic functions, , §, , His efforts established a number of principles that, are fundamental to the design of any digital, computer, , (Continued on next slide), , Ref Page 03, , Chapter 1: Introduction to Computers, , Slide 9/17, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 11 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Computer Generations, § “Generation” in computer talk is a step in technology. It, provides a framework for the growth of computer industry, § Originally it was used to distinguish between various, hardware technologies, but now it has been extended to, include both hardware and software, § Till today, there are five computer generations, , (Continued on next slide), , Ref Page 05, , Chapter 1: Introduction to Computers, , Slide 11/17, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 12 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Computer Generations, (Continued from previous slide..), , Some, representative, systems, , Generation, (Period), , Key hardware, technologies, , Key software, technologies, , Key, characteristics, , First, (1942-1955), , § Vacuum tubes, § Electromagnetic, relay memory, § Punched, cards, secondary storage, , § Machine, and, assembly, languages, § Stored, program, concept, § Mostly, scientific, applications, , § Bulky in size, § Highly unreliable, § Limited, commercial, use and costly, § Difficult, commercial, production, § Difficult to use, , §, §, §, §, §, , ENIAC, EDVAC, EDSAC, UNIVAC I, IBM 701, , Second, (1955-1964), , § Transistors, § Magnetic, cores, memory, § Magnetic tapes, § Disks for secondary, storage, , § Batch, operating, system, § High-level, programming, languages, § Scientific, and, commercial, applications, , § Faster, smaller, more, reliable and easier to, program than previous, generation systems, § Commercial production, was still difficult and, costly, , §, §, §, §, , Honeywell 400, IBM 7030, CDC 1604, UNIVAC LARC, , (Continued on next slide), , Ref Page 13, , Chapter 1: Introduction to Computers, , Slide 12/17, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 13 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Computer Generations, (Continued from previous slide..), , Generation, (Period), , Key hardware, technologies, , Key software, technologies, , Key, characteristics, , Some rep., systems, , Third, (1964-1975), , § ICs with SSI and, MSI technologies, § Larger magnetic, cores memory, § Larger capacity, disks and, magnetic tapes, secondary, storage, § Minicomputers;, upward, compatible family, of computers, , § Timesharing, operating, system, § Standardization, of high-level, programming, languages, § Unbundling of, software from, hardware, , § Faster, smaller, more, reliable, easier and, cheaper to produce, § Commercially, easier, to use, and easier to, upgrade than, previous generation, systems, § Scientific, commercial, and interactive online applications, , § IBM 360/370, § PDP-8, § PDP-11, § CDC 6600, , (Continued on next slide), , Ref Page 13, , Chapter 1: Introduction to Computers, , Slide 13/17, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 14 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Computer Generations, (Continued from previous slide..), , Generation, (Period), Fourth, (1975-1989), , Key hardware, Technologies, , Key software, technologies, , Key, characteristics, , Some rep., systems, , § ICs, with, VLSI, technology, § Microprocessors;, semiconductor memory, § Larger capacity hard, disks, as, in-built, secondary storage, § Magnetic tapes and, floppy disks as portable, storage media, § Personal computers, § Supercomputers based, on, parallel, vector, processing, and, symmetric, multiprocessing, technologies, § Spread of high-speed, computer networks, , § Operating systems for, PCs with GUI and, multiple windows on a, single terminal screen, § Multiprocessing, OS, with, concurrent, programming, languages, § UNIX operating system, with C programming, language, § Object-oriented design, and programming, § PC,, Network-based,, and, supercomputing, applications, , § Small, affordable,, reliable, and easy, to use PCs, § More, powerful, and, reliable, mainframe, systems, and, supercomputers, § Totally, general, purpose machines, § Easier to produce, commercially, § Easier to upgrade, § Rapid, software, development, possible, , § IBM PC and, its clones, § Apple II, § TRS-80, § VAX 9000, § CRAY-1, § CRAY-2, § CRAY-X/MP, , (Continued on next slide), , Ref Page 13, , Chapter 1: Introduction to Computers, , Slide 14/17, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 15 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Computer Generations, (Continued from previous slide..), , Generation, (Period), Fifth, (1989Present), , Ref Page 13, , Key hardware, technologies, , Key software, technologies, , Key, characteristics, , § ICs, with, ULSI, technology, § Larger, capacity, main, memory,, hard disks with, RAID support, § Optical disks as, portable read-only, storage media, § Notebooks,, powerful, desktop, PCs, and, workstations, § Powerful servers,, supercomputers, § Internet, § Cluster computing, , § Micro-kernel based,, multithreading,, distributed OS, § Parallel, programming, libraries like MPI &, PVM, § JAVA, § World Wide Web, § Multimedia,, Internet, applications, § More, complex, supercomputing, applications, , § Portable computers, § Powerful, cheaper,, reliable, and easier, to, use, desktop, machines, § Powerful, supercomputers, § High uptime due to, hot-pluggable, components, § Totally, general, purpose machines, § Easier to produce, commercially,, easier to upgrade, § Rapid, software, development, possible, , Chapter 1: Introduction to Computers, , Some rep., systems, § IBM notebooks, § Pentium PCs, § SUN, Workstations, § IBM SP/2, § SGI Origin 2000, § PARAM 10000, , Slide 15/17, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 17 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Key Words/Phrases, § Computer, § Computer generations, § Computer Supported Cooperative, Working (CSCW), § Data, § Data processing, § Data processor, § First-generation computers, § Fourth-generation computers, § Garbage-in-garbage-out (GIGO), § Graphical User Interface (GUI), § Groupware, § Information, , Ref Page 12, , Integrated Circuit (IC), Large Scale Integration (VLSI), Medium Scale Integration (MSI), Microprocessor, Personal Computer (PC), Second-generation computers, Small Scale Integration (SSI), Stored program concept, Third-generation computers, Transistor, Ultra Large Scale Integration, (ULSI), § Vacuum tubes, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, , Chapter 1: Introduction to Computers, , Slide 17/17, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 19 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Learning Objectives, In this chapter you will learn about:, § Basic operations performed by all types of computer, systems, § Basic organization of a computer system, § Input unit and its functions, § Output unit and its functions, § Storage unit and its functions, § Types of storage used in a computer system, , (Continued on next slide), , Ref. Page 15, , Chapter 2: Basic Computer Organization, , Slide 2/16, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 21 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , The Five Basic Operations of a Computer System, § Inputting. The process of entering data and instructions, into the computer system, § Storing. Saving data and instructions to make them, readily available for initial or additional processing, whenever required, § Processing. Performing arithmetic operations (add,, subtract, multiply, divide, etc.) or logical operations, (comparisons like equal to, less than, greater than, etc.), on data to convert them into useful information, , (Continued on next slide), , Ref. Page 15, , Chapter 2: Basic Computer Organization, , Slide 4/16, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 22 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , The Five Basic Operations of a Computer System, § Outputting. The process of producing useful information, or results for the user such as a printed report or visual, display, § Controlling. Directing the manner and sequence in which, all of the above operations are performed, , Ref. Page 15, , Chapter 2: Basic Computer Organization, , Slide 5/16, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 23 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Basic Organization of a Computer System, Storage Unit, Secondary, Storage, Program, and, Data, , Input, Unit, , Primary, Storage, , Output, Unit, , Information, (Results), , Control, Unit, Indicates flow of, instructions and data, Arithmetic, Logic Unit, , Indicates the control, exercised by the, control unit, , Central Processing Unit (CPU), , Ref. Page 16, , Chapter 2: Basic Computer Organization, , Slide 6/16, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 24 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Input Unit, An input unit of a computer system performs the, following functions:, 1. It accepts (or reads) instructions and data from outside, world, 2. It converts these instructions and data in computer, acceptable form, 3. It supplies the converted instructions and data to the, computer system for further processing, , Ref. Page 16, , Chapter 2: Basic Computer Organization, , Slide 7/16, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 25 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Output Unit, An output unit of a computer system performs the, following functions:, 1. It accepts the results produced by the computer, which, are in coded form and hence, cannot be easily, understood by us, 2. It converts these coded results to human acceptable, (readable) form, 3. It supplies the converted results to outside world, , Ref. Page 16, , Chapter 2: Basic Computer Organization, , Slide 8/16, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 26 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Storage Unit, The storage unit of a computer system holds (or stores), the following :, 1. Data and instructions required for processing (received, from input devices), 2. Intermediate results of processing, 3. Final results of processing, before they are released to, an output device, , Ref. Page 17, , Chapter 2: Basic Computer Organization, , Slide 9/16, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 27 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Two Types of Storage, § Primary storage, § Used to hold running program instructions, § Used to hold data, intermediate results, and, results of ongoing processing of job(s), § Fast in operation, § Small Capacity, § Expensive, § Volatile (looses data on power dissipation), , (Continued on next slide), , Ref. Page 17, , Chapter 2: Basic Computer Organization, , Slide 10/16, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 28 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Two Types of Storage, (Continued from previous slide..), , § Secondary storage, § Used to hold stored program instructions, § Used to hold data and information of stored jobs, § Slower than primary storage, § Large Capacity, § Lot cheaper that primary storage, § Retains data even without power, , Ref. Page 17, , Chapter 2: Basic Computer Organization, , Slide 11/16, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 31 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Central Processing Unit (CPU), Arithmetic, Logic Unit, (ALU), , +, , Control Unit, (CU), , =, , Central, Processing, Unit (CPU), , § It is the brain of a computer system, § It is responsible for controlling the operations of, all other units of a computer system, , Ref. Page 18, , Chapter 2: Basic Computer Organization, , Slide 14/16, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 32 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , The System Concept, A system has following three characteristics:, 1. A system has more than one element, 2. All elements of a system are logically related, 3. All elements of a system are controlled in a manner to, achieve the system goal, A computer is a system as it comprises of integrated, components (input unit, output unit, storage unit, and CPU), that work together to perform the steps called for in the, executing program, , Ref. Page 18, , Chapter 2: Basic Computer Organization, , Slide 15/16, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 33 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Key Words/Phrases, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, , Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU), Auxiliary storage, Central Processing Unit (CPU), Computer system, Control Unit (CU), Controlling, Input interface, Input unit, Inputting, Main memory, , Ref. Page 19, , §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, , Output interface, Output unit, Outputting, Primate storage, Processing, Secondary storage, Storage unit, Storing, System, , Chapter 2: Basic Computer Organization, , Slide 16/16, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 35 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Learning Objectives, In this chapter you will learn about:, § Non-positional number system, § Positional number system, § Decimal number system, § Binary number system, § Octal number system, § Hexadecimal number system, , (Continued on next slide), , Ref Page 20, , Chapter 3: Number Systems, , Slide 2/40, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 36 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Learning Objectives, (Continued from previous slide..), , § Convert a number’s base, § Another base to decimal base, § Decimal base to another base, § Some base to another base, § Shortcut methods for converting, § Binary to octal number, § Octal to binary number, § Binary to hexadecimal number, § Hexadecimal to binary number, § Fractional numbers in binary number system, , Ref Page 20, , Chapter 3: Number Systems, , Slide 3/40, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 38 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Non-positional Number Systems, § Characteristics, § Use symbols such as I for 1, II for 2, III for 3, IIII, for 4, IIIII for 5, etc, § Each symbol represents the same value regardless, of its position in the number, § The symbols are simply added to find out the value, of a particular number, § Difficulty, § It is difficult to perform arithmetic with such a, number system, , Ref Page 20, , Chapter 3: Number Systems, , Slide 5/40, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 40 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Positional Number Systems, (Continued from previous slide..), , §, , The value of each digit is determined by:, 1. The digit itself, 2. The position of the digit in the number, 3. The base of the number system, , (base = total number of digits in the number, system), §, , Ref Page 21, , The maximum value of a single digit is, always equal to one less than the value of, the base, , Chapter 3: Number Systems, , Slide 7/40, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 41 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Decimal Number System, Characteristics, §, , A positional number system, , §, , Has 10 symbols or digits (0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7,, 8, 9). Hence, its base = 10, , §, , The maximum value of a single digit is 9 (one, less than the value of the base), , §, , Each position of a digit represents a specific, power of the base (10), , §, , We use this number system in our day-to-day, life, , (Continued on next slide), , Ref Page 21, , Chapter 3: Number Systems, , Slide 8/40, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 43 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Binary Number System, Characteristics, §, , A positional number system, , §, , Has only 2 symbols or digits (0 and 1). Hence its, base = 2, , §, , The maximum value of a single digit is 1 (one less, than the value of the base), , §, , Each position of a digit represents a specific power, of the base (2), , §, , This number system is used in computers, , (Continued on next slide), , Ref Page 21, , Chapter 3: Number Systems, , Slide 10/40, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 44 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Binary Number System, (Continued from previous slide..), , Example, 101012 = (1 x 24) + (0 x 23) + (1 x 22) + (0 x 21) x (1 x 20), = 16 + 0 + 4 + 0 + 1, = 2110, , Ref Page 21, , Chapter 3: Number Systems, , Slide 11/40, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 45 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Representing Numbers in Different Number, Systems, , In order to be specific about which number system we, are referring to, it is a common practice to indicate the, base as a subscript. Thus, we write:, 101012 = 2110, , Ref Page 21, , Chapter 3: Number Systems, , Slide 12/40, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 46 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Bit, § Bit stands for binary digit, § A bit in computer terminology means either a 0 or a 1, § A binary number consisting of n bits is called an n-bit, number, , Ref Page 22, , Chapter 3: Number Systems, , Slide 13/40, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 47 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Octal Number System, Characteristics, § A positional number system, § Has total 8 symbols or digits (0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7)., Hence, its base = 8, § The maximum value of a single digit is 7 (one less, than the value of the base, § Each position of a digit represents a specific power of, the base (8), , (Continued on next slide), , Ref Page 22, , Chapter 3: Number Systems, , Slide 14/40, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 48 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Octal Number System, (Continued from previous slide..), , § Since there are only 8 digits, 3 bits (23 = 8) are, sufficient to represent any octal number in binary, Example, 20578 = (2 x 83) + (0 x 82) + (5 x 81) + (7 x 80), = 1024 + 0 + 40 + 7, = 107110, , Ref Page 22, , Chapter 3: Number Systems, , Slide 15/40, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 49 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Hexadecimal Number System, Characteristics, § A positional number system, § Has total 16 symbols or digits (0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7,, 8, 9, A, B, C, D, E, F). Hence its base = 16, § The symbols A, B, C, D, E and F represent the, decimal values 10, 11, 12, 13, 14 and 15, respectively, § The maximum value of a single digit is 15 (one less, than the value of the base), , (Continued on next slide), , Ref Page 22, , Chapter 3: Number Systems, , Slide 16/40, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 50 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Hexadecimal Number System, (Continued from previous slide..), , § Each position of a digit represents a specific power, of the base (16), § Since there are only 16 digits, 4 bits (24 = 16) are, sufficient to represent any hexadecimal number in, binary, Example, 1AF16, , = (1 x 162) + (A x 161) + (F x 160), = 1 x 256 + 10 x 16 + 15 x 1, = 256 + 160 + 15, = 43110, , Ref Page 22, , Chapter 3: Number Systems, , Slide 17/40, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 51 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Converting a Number of Another Base to a, Decimal Number, Method, Step 1: Determine the column (positional) value of, each digit, Step 2: Multiply the obtained column values by the, digits in the corresponding columns, Step 3: Calculate the sum of these products, , (Continued on next slide), , Ref Page 23, , Chapter 3: Number Systems, , Slide 18/40, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 52 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Converting a Number of Another Base to a, Decimal Number, (Continued from previous slide..), , Example, 47068 = ?10, , 47068 = 4 x 83 + 7 x 82 + 0 x 81 + 6 x 80, = 4 x 512 + 7 x 64 + 0 + 6 x 1, = 2048 + 448 + 0 + 6, = 250210, , Ref Page 23, , Common, values, multiplied, by the, corresponding, digits, , Sum of these, products, , Chapter 3: Number Systems, , Slide 19/40, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 53 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Converting a Decimal Number to a Number of, Another Base, Division-Remainder Method, Step 1: Divide the decimal number to be converted by, the value of the new base, Step 2: Record the remainder from Step 1 as the, rightmost digit (least significant digit) of the, new base number, Step 3:, , Divide the quotient of the previous divide by the, new base, , (Continued on next slide), , Ref Page 25, , Chapter 3: Number Systems, , Slide 20/40, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 54 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Converting a Decimal Number to a Number of, Another Base, (Continued from previous slide..), , Step 4: Record the remainder from Step 3 as the next, digit (to the left) of the new base number, Repeat Steps 3 and 4, recording remainders from right to, left, until the quotient becomes zero in Step 3, Note that the last remainder thus obtained will be the most, significant digit (MSD) of the new base number, , (Continued on next slide), , Ref Page 25, , Chapter 3: Number Systems, , Slide 21/40, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 55 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Converting a Decimal Number to a Number of, Another Base, (Continued from previous slide..), , Example, 95210 = ?8, Solution:, 8 952, 119, 14, 1, 0, , Remainder, s 0, 7, 6, 1, , Hence, 95210 = 16708, Ref Page 26, , Chapter 3: Number Systems, , Slide 22/40, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 56 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Converting a Number of Some Base to a Number, of Another Base, Method, Step 1: Convert the original number to a decimal, number (base 10), Step 2: Convert the decimal number so obtained to, the new base number, , (Continued on next slide), , Ref Page 27, , Chapter 3: Number Systems, , Slide 23/40, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 57 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Converting a Number of Some Base to a Number, of Another Base, (Continued from previous slide..), , Example, 5456 = ?4, Solution:, Step 1: Convert from base 6 to base 10, 5456 = 5 x 62 + 4 x 61 + 5 x 60, = 5 x 36 + 4 x 6 + 5 x 1, = 180 + 24 + 5, = 20910, , (Continued on next slide), , Ref Page 27, , Chapter 3: Number Systems, , Slide 24/40, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 58 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Converting a Number of Some Base to a Number, of Another Base, (Continued from previous slide..), , Step 2: Convert 20910 to base 4, 4, , 209, , Remainders, , 52, , 1, , 13, , 0, , 3, , 1, 3, , 0, Hence, 20910 = 31014, So, 5456 = 20910 = 31014, Thus, 5456 = 31014, , Ref Page 28, , Chapter 3: Number Systems, , Slide 25/40, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 59 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Shortcut Method for Converting a Binary Number, to its Equivalent Octal Number, Method, Step 1: Divide the digits into groups of three starting, from the right, Step 2: Convert each group of three binary digits to, one octal digit using the method of binary to, decimal conversion, , (Continued on next slide), , Ref Page 29, , Chapter 3: Number Systems, , Slide 26/40, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 60 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Shortcut Method for Converting a Binary Number, to its Equivalent Octal Number, (Continued from previous slide..), , Example, 11010102 = ?8, Step 1: Divide the binary digits into groups of 3 starting, from right, 001, , 101, , 010, , Step 2: Convert each group into one octal digit, 0012 = 0 x 22 + 0 x 21 + 1 x 20 = 1, 1012 = 1 x 22 + 0 x 21 + 1 x 20 = 5, 0102 = 0 x 22 + 1 x 21 + 0 x 20 = 2, Hence, 11010102 = 1528, , Ref Page 29, , Chapter 3: Number Systems, , Slide 27/40, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 61 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Shortcut Method for Converting an Octal, Number to Its Equivalent Binary Number, Method, Step 1:, , Convert each octal digit to a 3 digit binary, number (the octal digits may be treated as, decimal for this conversion), , Step 2: Combine all the resulting binary groups, (of 3 digits each) into a single binary, number, , (Continued on next slide), , Ref Page 30, , Chapter 3: Number Systems, , Slide 28/40, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 62 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Shortcut Method for Converting an Octal, Number to Its Equivalent Binary Number, (Continued from previous slide..), , Example, 5628 = ?2, Step 1: Convert each octal digit to 3 binary digits, 58 = 1012,, 68 = 1102,, 28 = 0102, Step 2: Combine the binary groups, 110, 010, 5628 = 101, 5, 6, 2, Hence, 5628 = 1011100102, , Ref Page 30, , Chapter 3: Number Systems, , Slide 29/40, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 63 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Shortcut Method for Converting a Binary, Number to its Equivalent Hexadecimal Number, Method, Step 1:, , Divide the binary digits into groups of four, starting from the right, , Step 2:, , Combine each group of four binary digits to, one hexadecimal digit, , (Continued on next slide), , Ref Page 30, , Chapter 3: Number Systems, , Slide 30/40, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 64 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Shortcut Method for Converting a Binary, Number to its Equivalent Hexadecimal Number, (Continued from previous slide..), , Example, 1111012 = ?16, Step 1:, , Divide the binary digits into groups of four, starting from the right, 0011, , 1101, , Step 2: Convert each group into a hexadecimal digit, 00112 = 0 x 23 + 0 x 22 + 1 x 21 + 1 x 20 = 310 = 316, 11012 = 1 x 23 + 1 x 22 + 0 x 21 + 1 x 20 = 310 = D16, Hence, 1111012 = 3D16, , Ref Page 31, , Chapter 3: Number Systems, , Slide 31/40, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 65 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Shortcut Method for Converting a Hexadecimal, Number to its Equivalent Binary Number, Method, Step 1: Convert the decimal equivalent of each, hexadecimal digit to a 4 digit binary, number, Step 2: Combine all the resulting binary groups, (of 4 digits each) in a single binary number, , (Continued on next slide), , Ref Page 31, , Chapter 3: Number Systems, , Slide 32/40, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 68 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Fractional Numbers, Fractional numbers are formed same way as decimal, number system, In general, a number in a number system with base b, would be written as:, an an-1… a0 . a-1 a-2 … a-m, And would be interpreted to mean:, an x bn + an-1 x bn-1 + … + a0 x b0 + a-1 x b-1 + a-2 x b-2 +, … + a-m x b-m, The symbols an, an-1, …, a-m in above representation, should be one of the b symbols allowed in the number, system, , Ref Page 33, , Chapter 3: Number Systems, , Slide 35/40, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 69 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Formation of Fractional Numbers in, Binary Number System (Example), Binary Point, Position, , 4, , 3, , 2, , 1, , 0, , -1, , -2, , -3, , -4, , Position Value, , 24, , 23, , 22, , 21, , 20, , 2-1, , 2-2, , 2-3, , 2-4, , Quantity, Represented, , 16, , 8, , 4, , 2, , 1, , 1/, 2, , 1/, 4, , 1/, 8, , 1/, 16, , ., , (Continued on next slide), , Ref Page 33, , Chapter 3: Number Systems, , Slide 36/40, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 70 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Formation of Fractional Numbers in, Binary Number System (Example), (Continued from previous slide..), , Example, 110.1012 = 1 x 22 + 1 x 21 + 0 x 20 + 1 x 2-1 + 0 x 2-2 + 1 x 2-3, = 4 + 2 + 0 + 0.5 + 0 + 0.125, = 6.62510, , Ref Page 33, , Chapter 3: Number Systems, , Slide 37/40, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 71 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Formation of Fractional Numbers in, Octal Number System (Example), Octal Point, Position, , 3, , 2, , 1, , 0, , Position Value, , 83, , 82, , 81, , 80, , 8, , 1, , Quantity, Represented, , 512, , 64, , ., , -1, , -2, , -3, , 8-1, , 8-2, , 8-3, , 1/, 8, , 1/, 64, , 1/, 512, , (Continued on next slide), , Ref Page 33, , Chapter 3: Number Systems, , Slide 38/40, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 72 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Formation of Fractional Numbers in, Octal Number System (Example), (Continued from previous slide..), , Example, 127.548, , = 1 x 82 + 2 x 81 + 7 x 80 + 5 x 8-1 + 4 x 8-2, = 64 + 16 + 7 + 5/8 + 4/64, = 87 + 0.625 + 0.0625, = 87.687510, , Ref Page 33, , Chapter 3: Number Systems, , Slide 39/40, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 73 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Key Words/Phrases, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, , Base, Binary number system, Binary point, Bit, Decimal number system, Division-Remainder technique, Fractional numbers, Hexadecimal number system, , Ref Page 34, , Least Significant Digit (LSD), Memory dump, Most Significant Digit (MSD), Non-positional number, system, § Number system, § Octal number system, § Positional number system, §, §, §, §, , Chapter 3: Number Systems, , Slide 40/40, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 76 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Data Types, § Numeric Data consists of only numbers 0, 1, 2, …, 9, § Alphabetic Data consists of only the letters A, B, C,, …, Z, in both uppercase and lowercase, and blank, character, § Alphanumeric Data is a string of symbols where a, symbol may be one of the letters A, B, C, …, Z, in, either uppercase or lowercase, or one of the digits 0,, 1, 2, …, 9, or a special character, such as + - * / , . (, ) = etc., , Ref. Page 36, , Chapter 4: Computer Codes, , Slide 3/30, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 77 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Computer Codes, § Computer codes are used for internal representation of, data in computers, § As computers use binary numbers for internal data, representation, computer codes use binary coding, schemes, § In binary coding, every symbol that appears in the data, is represented by a group of bits, § The group of bits used to represent a symbol is called a, byte, , (Continued on next slide), , Ref. Page 36, , Chapter 4: Computer Codes, , Slide 4/30, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 80 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Coding of Alphabetic and Numeric, Characters in BCD, BCD Code, , BCD Code, , Octal, , Octal, , Char, , Zone, , Digit, , 61, , N, , 10, , 0101, , 45, , 0010, , 62, , O, , 10, , 0110, , 46, , 11, , 0011, , 63, , P, , 10, , 0111, , 47, , D, , 11, , 0100, , 64, , Q, , 10, , 1000, , 50, , E, , 11, , 0101, , 65, , R, , 10, , 1001, , 51, , F, , 11, , 0110, , 66, , S, , 01, , 0010, , 22, , G, , 11, , 0111, , 67, , T, , 01, , 0011, , 23, , H, , 11, , 1000, , 70, , U, , 01, , 0100, , 24, , I, , 11, , 1001, , 71, , V, , 01, , 0101, , 25, , J, , 10, , 0001, , 41, , W, , 01, , 0110, , 26, , K, , 10, , 0010, , 42, , X, , 01, , 0111, , 27, , L, , 10, , 0011, , 43, , Y, , 01, , 1000, , 30, , M, , 10, , 0100, , 44, , Z, , 01, , 1001, , 31, , Char, , Zone, , Digit, , A, , 11, , 0001, , B, , 11, , C, , (Continued on next slide), , Ref. Page 37, , Chapter 4: Computer Codes, , Slide 7/30, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 81 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Coding of Alphabetic and Numeric, Characters in BCD, (Continued from previous slide..), , BCD Code, , Ref. Page 37, , Octal, Equivalent, , Character, , Zone, , Digit, , 1, , 00, , 0001, , 01, , 2, , 00, , 0010, , 02, , 3, , 00, , 0011, , 03, , 4, , 00, , 0100, , 04, , 5, , 00, , 0101, , 05, , 6, , 00, , 0110, , 06, , 7, , 00, , 0111, , 07, , 8, , 00, , 1000, , 10, , 9, , 00, , 1001, , 11, , 0, , 00, , 1010, , 12, , Chapter 4: Computer Codes, , Slide 8/30, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 87 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Zoned Decimal Numbers, § Zoned decimal numbers are used to represent numeric, values (positive, negative, or unsigned) in EBCDIC, § A sign indicator (C for plus, D for minus, and F for, unsigned) is used in the zone position of the rightmost, digit, § Zones for all other digits remain as F, the zone value, for numeric characters in EBCDIC, § In zoned format, there is only one digit per byte, , Ref. Page 39, , Chapter 4: Computer Codes, , Slide 14/30, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 89 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Packed Decimal Numbers, § Packed decimal numbers are formed from zoned decimal, numbers in the following manner:, Step 1: The zone half and the digit half of, the rightmost byte are reversed, Step 2: All remaining zones are dropped out, § Packed decimal format requires fewer number of bytes, than zoned decimal format for representing a number, § Numbers represented in packed decimal format can be, used for arithmetic operations, , Ref. Page 39, , Chapter 4: Computer Codes, , Slide 16/30, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 91 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , EBCDIC Coding Scheme, Example, Using binary notation, write EBCDIC coding for the word BIT., many bytes are required for this representation?, , How, , Solution:, B = 1100 0010 in EBCDIC binary notation, I = 1100 1001 in EBCDIC binary notation, T = 1110 0011 in EBCDIC binary notation, Hence, EBCDIC coding for the word BIT in binary notation will be, 11000010, B, , 11001001, I, , 11100011, T, , 3 bytes will be required for this representation because each letter, requires 1 byte (or 8 bits), , Ref. Page 40, , Chapter 4: Computer Codes, , Slide 18/30, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 92 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , ASCII, § ASCII stands for American, Information Interchange., , Standard, , Code, , for, , § ASCII is of two types – ASCII-7 and ASCII-8, § ASCII-7 uses 7 bits to represent a symbol and can, represent 128 (27) different characters, § ASCII-8 uses 8 bits to represent a symbol and can, represent 256 (28) different characters, § First 128 characters in ASCII-7 and ASCII-8 are same, , Ref. Page 40, , Chapter 4: Computer Codes, , Slide 19/30, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 93 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Coding of Numeric and, Alphabetic Characters in ASCII, ASCII-7 / ASCII-8, Zone, , Digit, , Hexadecimal, Equivalent, , 0, , 0011, , 0000, , 30, , 1, , 0011, , 0001, , 31, , 2, , 0011, , 0010, , 32, , 3, , 0011, , 0011, , 33, , 4, , 0011, , 0100, , 34, , 5, , 0011, , 0101, , 35, , 6, , 0011, , 0110, , 36, , 7, , 0011, , 0111, , 37, , 8, , 0011, , 1000, , 38, , 9, , 0011, , 1001, , 39, , Character, , (Continued on next slide), , Ref. Page 42, , Chapter 4: Computer Codes, , Slide 20/30, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 94 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Coding of Numeric and, Alphabetic Characters in ASCII, (Continued from previous slide..), , ASCII-7 / ASCII-8, Zone, , Digit, , Hexadecimal, Equivalent, , A, , 0100, , 0001, , 41, , B, , 0100, , 0010, , 42, , C, , 0100, , 0011, , 43, , D, , 0100, , 0100, , 44, , E, , 0100, , 0101, , 45, , F, , 0100, , 0110, , 46, , G, , 0100, , 0111, , 47, , H, , 0100, , 1000, , 48, , I, , 0100, , 1001, , 49, , J, , 0100, , 1010, , 4A, , K, , 0100, , 1011, , 4B, , L, , 0100, , 1100, , 4C, , M, , 0100, , 1101, , 4D, , Character, , (Continued on next slide), , Ref. Page 42, , Chapter 4: Computer Codes, , Slide 21/30, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 95 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Coding of Numeric and, Alphabetic Characters in ASCII, (Continued from previous slide..), , Ref. Page 42, , ASCII-7 / ASCII-8, Zone, , Digit, , Hexadecimal, Equivalent, , N, , 0100, , 1110, , 4E, , O, , 0100, , 1111, , 4F, , P, , 0101, , 0000, , 50, , Q, , 0101, , 0001, , 51, , R, , 0101, , 0010, , 52, , S, , 0101, , 0011, , 53, , T, , 0101, , 0100, , 54, , U, , 0101, , 0101, , 55, , V, , 0101, , 0110, , 56, , W, , 0101, , 0111, , 57, , X, , 0101, , 1000, , 58, , Y, , 0101, , 1001, , 59, , Z, , 0101, , 1010, , 5A, , Character, , Chapter 4: Computer Codes, , Slide 22/30, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 96 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , ASCII-7 Coding Scheme, Example, Write binary coding for the word BOY in ASCII-7. How many bytes are required, for this representation?, Solution:, B = 1000010 in ASCII-7 binary notation, O = 1001111 in ASCII-7 binary notation, Y = 1011001 in ASCII-7 binary notation, Hence, binary coding for the word BOY in ASCII-7 will be, 1000010, B, , 1001111, O, , 1011001, Y, , Since each character in ASCII-7 requires one byte for its representation and, there are 3 characters in the word BOY, 3 bytes will be required for this, representation, , Ref. Page 43, , Chapter 4: Computer Codes, , Slide 23/30, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 97 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , ASCII-8 Coding Scheme, Example, Write binary coding for the word SKY in ASCII-8. How many bytes are, required for this representation?, Solution:, S = 01010011 in ASCII-8 binary notation, K = 01001011 in ASCII-8 binary notation, Y = 01011001 in ASCII-8 binary notation, Hence, binary coding for the word SKY in ASCII-8 will be, 01010011, S, , 01001011, K, , 01011001, Y, , Since each character in ASCII-8 requires one byte for its representation, and there are 3 characters in the word SKY, 3 bytes will be required for, this representation, , Ref. Page 43, , Chapter 4: Computer Codes, , Slide 24/30, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 98 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Unicode, § Why Unicode:, § No single encoding system supports all languages, § Different encoding systems conflict, § Unicode features:, § Provides a consistent way of encoding multilingual, plain text, § Defines codes for characters used in all major, languages of the world, § Defines codes for special characters, mathematical, symbols, technical symbols, and diacritics, , Ref. Page 44, , Chapter 4: Computer Codes, , Slide 25/30, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 99 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Unicode, § Unicode features (continued):, § Capacity to encode as many as a million characters, § Assigns each character a unique numeric value and, name, § Reserves a part of the code space for private use, § Affords simplicity and consistency of ASCII, even, corresponding characters have same code, § Specifies an algorithm for the presentation of text, with bi-directional behavior, § Encoding Forms, § UTF-8, UTF-16, UTF-32, , Ref. Page 44, , Chapter 4: Computer Codes, , Slide 26/30, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 100 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Collating Sequence, §, , Collating sequence defines the assigned ordering, among the characters used by a computer, , §, , Collating sequence may vary, depending on the, type of computer code used by a particular, computer, , §, , In most computers, collating sequences follow the, following rules:, 1. Letters are considered in alphabetic order, (A < B < C … < Z), 2. Digits are considered in numeric order, (0 < 1 < 2 … < 9), , Ref. Page 46, , Chapter 4: Computer Codes, , Slide 27/30, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 103 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Key Words/Phrases, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, , Alphabetic data, Alphanumeric data, American Standard Code for Information Interchange (ASCII), Binary Coded Decimal (BCD) code, Byte, Collating sequence, Computer codes, Control characters, Extended Binary-Coded Decimal Interchange Code (EBCDIC), Hexadecimal equivalent, Numeric data, Octal equivalent, Packed decimal numbers, Unicode, Zoned decimal numbers, , Ref. Page 47, , Chapter 4: Computer Codes, , Slide 30/30, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 106 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Binary over Decimal, § Information is handled in a computer by electronic/, electrical components, § Electronic components operate in binary mode (can, only indicate two states – on (1) or off (0), § Binary number system has only two digits (0 and 1),, and is suitable for expressing two possible states, § In binary system, computer circuits only have to handle, two binary digits rather than ten decimal digits causing:, § Simpler internal circuit design, § Less expensive, § More reliable circuits, § Arithmetic, numbers, , Ref Page 49, , rules/processes, , possible, , Chapter 5: Computer Arithmetic, , with, , binary, , Slide 3/29, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 108 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Binary Arithmetic, §, , Binary arithmetic is simple to learn as binary number, system has only two digits – 0 and 1, , §, , Following slides show rules and example for the four, basic arithmetic operations using binary numbers, , Ref Page 50, , Chapter 5: Computer Arithmetic, , Slide 5/29, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 110 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Binary Addition (Example 1), Example, Add binary numbers 10011 and 1001 in both decimal and, binary form, Solution, Binary, , Decimal, , carry 11, 10011, +1001, , carry 1, 19, +9, , 11100, , 28, , In this example, carry are generated for first and second columns, , Ref Page 51, , Chapter 5: Computer Arithmetic, , Slide 7/29, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 111 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Binary Addition (Example 2), Example, Add binary numbers 100111 and 11011 in both decimal, and binary form, Solution, Binary, carry 11111, 100111, +11011, 1000010, , Ref Page 51, , Decimal, carry 1, 39, +27, 66, , The addition of three 1s, can be broken up into two, steps. First, we add only, two 1s giving 10 (1 + 1 =, 10). The third 1 is now, added to this result to, obtain 11 (a 1 sum with a 1, carry). Hence, 1 + 1 + 1 =, 1, plus a carry of 1 to next, higher column., , Chapter 5: Computer Arithmetic, , Slide 8/29, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 115 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Complement of a Number (Example 1), Example, Find the complement of 3710, Solution, Since the number has 2 digits and the value of, base is 10,, (Base)n - 1 = 102 - 1 = 99, Now 99 - 37 = 62, Hence, complement of 3710 = 6210, , Ref Page 53, , Chapter 5: Computer Arithmetic, , Slide 12/29, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 116 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Complement of a Number (Example 2), Example, Find the complement of 68, Solution, Since the number has 1 digit and the value of, base is 8,, (Base)n - 1 = 81 - 1 = 710 = 78, Now 78 - 68 = 18, Hence, complement of 68 = 18, , Ref Page 53, , Chapter 5: Computer Arithmetic, , Slide 13/29, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 117 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Complement of a Binary Number, Complement of a binary number can be obtained by, transforming all its 0’s to 1’s and all its 1’s to 0’s, Example, Complement of, , 1, , 0, , 1, , 1, , 0, , 1, , 0, , 0 1, , 0, , 0, , 1, , 0, , 1, , is, , Note: Verify by conventional complement, , Ref Page 53, , Chapter 5: Computer Arithmetic, , Slide 14/29, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 118 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Complementary Method of Subtraction, Involves following 3 steps:, Step, , 1:, , Find the complement of the, are subtracting (subtrahend), , Step, , 2:, , Add this to the number, are taking away (minuend), , from, , number, , you, , which, , you, , Step 3: If there is a carry of 1, add it to obtain, the result; if there is no carry, recomplement the, sum and attach a negative sign, Complementary subtraction is an additive approach of subtraction, , Ref Page 53, , Chapter 5: Computer Arithmetic, , Slide 15/29, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 119 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Complementary Subtraction (Example 1), Example:, Subtract 5610 from 9210 using complementary method., Solution, Step 1: Complement of 5610, = 102 - 1 - 56 = 99 – 56 = 4310, Step 2: 92 + 43 (complement of 56), = 135 (note 1 as carry), , The result may be, verified using the, method of normal, subtraction:, , Step 3: 35 + 1 (add 1 carry to sum), , 92 - 56 = 36, , Result, , Ref Page 53, , = 36, , Chapter 5: Computer Arithmetic, , Slide 16/29, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 120 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Complementary Subtraction (Example 2), Example, Subtract 3510 from 1810 using complementary method., Solution, Step 1:, =, =, =, , Complement of 3510, 102 - 1 - 35, 99 - 35, 6410, , Step 2:, , 18, + 64 (complement, of 35), 82, , Step 3:, , Result, , Since there is no carry,, re-complement the sum and, attach a negative sign to, obtain the result., = -(99 - 82), = -17, , The result may be verified using normal, subtraction:, 18 - 35 = -17, , Ref Page 53, , Chapter 5: Computer Arithmetic, , Slide 17/29, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 121 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Binary Subtraction Using Complementary Method, (Example 1), Example, Subtract 01110002 (5610) from 10111002 (9210) using, complementary method., Solution, 1011100, +1000111 (complement of 0111000), 10100011, 1 (add the carry of 1), 0100100, Result = 01001002 = 3610, , Ref Page 53, , Chapter 5: Computer Arithmetic, , Slide 18/29, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 122 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Binary Subtraction Using Complementary Method, (Example 2), Example, Subtract 1000112 (3510) from 0100102 (1810) using, complementary method., Solution, 010010, +011100 (complement of 100011), 101110, Since there is no carry, we have to complement the sum and, attach a negative sign to it. Hence,, Result = -0100012 (complement of 1011102), = -1710, , Ref Page 54, , Chapter 5: Computer Arithmetic, , Slide 19/29, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 124 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Binary Multiplication (Example 1), Example, Multiply the binary numbers 1010 and 1001, Solution, 1010, x1001, , Multiplicand, Multiplier, , 1010, 0000, 0000, 1010, , Partial Product, Partial Product, Partial Product, Partial Product, , 1011010, , Final Product, (Continued on next slide), , Ref Page 55, , Chapter 5: Computer Arithmetic, , Slide 21/29, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 125 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Binary Multiplication (Example 2), (Continued from previous slide..), , Whenever a 0 appears in the multiplier, a separate partial, product consisting of a string of zeros need not be generated, (only a shift will do). Hence,, , 1010, x1001, 1010, 1010SS (S = left shift), 1011010, , Ref Page 55, , Chapter 5: Computer Arithmetic, , Slide 22/29, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 126 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Binary Division, Table for binary division is as follows:, 0, 0, 1, 1, , ÷, ÷, ÷, ÷, , 0, 1, 0, 1, , =, =, =, =, , Divide by zero error, 0, Divide by zero error, 1, , As in the decimal number system (or in any other number, system), division by zero is meaningless, The computer deals with this problem by raising an error, condition called ‘Divide by zero’ error, , Ref Page 57, , Chapter 5: Computer Arithmetic, , Slide 23/29, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 127 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Rules for Binary Division, 1. Start from the left of the dividend, 2. Perform a series of subtractions in which the divisor is, subtracted from the dividend, 3. If subtraction is possible, put a 1 in the quotient and, subtract the divisor from the corresponding digits of, dividend, 4. If subtraction is not possible (divisor greater than, remainder), record a 0 in the quotient, 5. Bring down the next digit to add to the remainder, digits. Proceed as before in a manner similar to long, division, , Ref Page 57, , Chapter 5: Computer Arithmetic, , Slide 24/29, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 128 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Binary Division (Example 1), Example, Divide 1000012 by 1102, Solution, 110, , 0101 (Quotient), 100001 (Dividend), 110, , 1, , Divisor greater than 100, so put 0 in quotient, , 1000, 110, , 2, , Add digit from dividend to group used above, , 3, , Subtraction possible, so put 1 in quotient, , 4, , Remainder from subtraction plus digit from dividend, , 5, , Divisor greater, so put 0 in quotient, , 100, 110, , 1001 6, 110 7, 11, , Ref Page 57, , Add digit from dividend to group, Subtraction possible, so put 1 in quotient, Remainder, , Chapter 5: Computer Arithmetic, , Slide 25/29, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 129 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Additive Method of Multiplication and Division, Most computers use the additive method for performing, multiplication and division operations because it simplifies, the internal circuit design of computer systems, Example, 4 x 8 = 8 + 8 + 8 + 8 = 32, , Ref Page 56, , Chapter 5: Computer Arithmetic, , Slide 26/29, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 130 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Rules for Additive Method of Division, §, , Subtract the divisor repeatedly from the dividend until, the result of subtraction becomes less than or equal to, zero, , §, , If result of subtraction is zero, then:, , §, , §, , quotient = total number of times subtraction was, performed, , §, , remainder = 0, , If result of subtraction is less than zero, then:, , Ref Page 58, , §, , quotient = total number of times subtraction was, performed minus 1, , §, , remainder = result of the subtraction previous to, the last subtraction, , Chapter 5: Computer Arithmetic, , Slide 27/29, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 131 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Additive Method of Division (Example), Example, Divide 3310 by 610 using the method of addition, Solution:, 33 - 6 = 27, 27 - 6 = 21, 21 - 6 = 15, 15 - 6 = 9, 9-6= 3, 3 - 6 = -3, , Since the result of the last, subtraction is less than zero,, Quotient = 6 - 1 (ignore last, subtraction) = 5, , Total subtractions = 6, , Ref Page 58, , Remainder = 3 (result of previous, subtraction), , Chapter 5: Computer Arithmetic, , Slide 28/29, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 134 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Learning Objectives, In this chapter you will learn about:, § Boolean algebra, § Fundamental concepts and basic laws of Boolean, algebra, § Boolean function and minimization, § Logic gates, § Logic circuits and Boolean expressions, § Combinational circuits and design, , Ref. Page 60, , Chapter 6: Boolean Algebra and Logic Circuits, , Slide 2/78, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 135 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Boolean Algebra, § An algebra that deals with binary number system, § George Boole (1815-1864), an English mathematician, developed, it for:, §, , Simplifying representation, , §, , Manipulation of propositional logic, , § In 1938, Claude E. Shannon proposed using Boolean algebra in, design of relay switching circuits, § Provides economical and straightforward approach, § Used extensively in designing electronic circuits used in computers, , Ref. Page 60, , Chapter 6: Boolean Algebra and Logic Circuits, , Slide 3/78, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 136 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Fundamental Concepts of Boolean Algebra, § Use of Binary Digit, § Boolean equations can have either of two possible, values, 0 and 1, § Logical Addition, § Symbol ‘+’, also known as ‘OR’ operator, used for, logical addition. Follows law of binary addition, § Logical Multiplication, § Symbol ‘.’, also known as ‘AND’ operator, used for, logical multiplication. Follows law of binary, multiplication, § Complementation, § Symbol ‘-’, also known as ‘NOT’ operator, used for, complementation. Follows law of binary compliment, , Ref. Page 61, , Chapter 6: Boolean Algebra and Logic Circuits, , Slide 4/78, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 137 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Operator Precedence, § Each operator has a precedence level, § Higher the operator’s precedence level, earlier it is evaluated, § Expression is scanned from left to right, § First, expressions enclosed within parentheses are evaluated, § Then, all complement (NOT) operations are performed, § Then, all ‘⋅’ (AND) operations are performed, § Finally, all ‘+’ (OR) operations are performed, , (Continued on next slide), , Ref. Page 62, , Chapter 6: Boolean Algebra and Logic Circuits, , Slide 5/78, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 139 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Postulates of Boolean Algebra, Postulate 1:, (a) A = 0, if and only if, A is not equal to 1, (b) A = 1, if and only if, A is not equal to 0, Postulate 2:, (a) x + 0 = x, (b) x ⋅ 1 = x, Postulate 3: Commutative Law, (a) x + y = y + x, (b) x ⋅ y = y ⋅ x, , (Continued on next slide), , Ref. Page 62, , Chapter 6: Boolean Algebra and Logic Circuits, , Slide 7/78, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 140 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Postulates of Boolean Algebra, (Continued from previous slide..), , Postulate 4: Associative Law, (a) x + (y + z) = (x + y) + z, (b) x ⋅ (y ⋅ z) = (x ⋅ y) ⋅ z, Postulate 5: Distributive Law, (a) x ⋅ (y + z) = (x ⋅ y) + (x ⋅ z), (b) x + (y ⋅ z) = (x + y) ⋅ (x + z), Postulate 6:, (a) x + x = 1, (b) x ⋅ x = 0, Ref. Page 62, , Chapter 6: Boolean Algebra and Logic Circuits, , Slide 8/78, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 141 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , The Principle of Duality, There is a precise duality between the operators . (AND) and +, (OR), and the digits 0 and 1., For example, in the table below, the second row is obtained from, the first row and vice versa simply by interchanging ‘+’ with ‘.’, and ‘0’ with ‘1’, Column 1, , Column 2, , Column 3, , Row 1, , 1+1=1, , 1+0=0+1=1, , 0+0=0, , Row 2, , 0⋅0=0, , 0⋅1=1⋅0=0, , 1⋅1=1, , Therefore, if a particular theorem is proved, its dual theorem, automatically holds and need not be proved separately, , Ref. Page 63, , Chapter 6: Boolean Algebra and Logic Circuits, , Slide 9/78, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 142 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Some Important Theorems of Boolean Algebra, , Sr., No., , Theorems/, Identities, , Dual Theorems/, Identities, , 1, , x+x=x, , x⋅x=x, , 2, , x+1=1, , x⋅0=0, , 3, , x+x⋅y=x, , x⋅x+y=x, , 4, , x, , 5, , x⋅x +y=x⋅y, , 6, , x+y, , Ref. Page 63, , =x, , = x y⋅, , Name, (if any), Idempotent Law, , Absorption Law, Involution Law, , x +x ⋅ y = x + y, , x⋅y, , = x y+, , De Morgan’s, Law, , Chapter 6: Boolean Algebra and Logic Circuits, , Slide 10/78, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 143 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Methods of Proving Theorems, The theorems of Boolean algebra may be proved by using, one of the following methods:, , 1. By using postulates to show that L.H.S. = R.H.S, 2. By Perfect Induction or Exhaustive Enumeration method, where all possible combinations of variables involved in, L.H.S. and R.H.S. are checked to yield identical results, 3. By the Principle of Duality where the dual of an already, proved theorem is derived from the proof of its, corresponding pair, , Ref. Page 63, , Chapter 6: Boolean Algebra and Logic Circuits, , Slide 11/78, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 144 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Proving a Theorem by Using Postulates, (Example), Theorem:, x+x·y=x, Proof:, L.H.S., =, =, =, =, =, =, =, , Ref. Page 64, , x+x⋅y, x⋅1+x⋅y, x ⋅ (1 + y), x ⋅ (y + 1), x⋅1, x, R.H.S., , by, by, by, by, by, , postulate 2(b), postulate 5(a), postulate 3(a), theorem 2(a), postulate 2(b), , Chapter 6: Boolean Algebra and Logic Circuits, , Slide 12/78, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 145 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Proving a Theorem by Perfect Induction, (Example), Theorem:, , x + x ·y = x, =, , Ref. Page 64, , x, , y, , x⋅y, , x+x⋅y, , 0, , 0, , 0, , 0, , 0, , 1, , 0, , 0, , 1, , 0, , 0, , 1, , 1, , 1, , 1, , 1, , Chapter 6: Boolean Algebra and Logic Circuits, , Slide 13/78, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 146 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Proving a Theorem by the, Principle of Duality (Example), Theorem:, x+x=x, Proof:, L.H.S., =x+x, = (x + x) ⋅ 1, = (x + x) ⋅ (x + X), = x + x ⋅X, =x+0, =x, = R.H.S., , by, by, by, by, by, , postulate, postulate, postulate, postulate, postulate, , 2(b), 6(a), 5(b), 6(b), 2(a), , (Continued on next slide), , Ref. Page 63, , Chapter 6: Boolean Algebra and Logic Circuits, , Slide 14/78, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 147 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Proving a Theorem by the, Principle of Duality (Example), (Continued from previous slide..), , Dual Theorem:, x⋅x=x, Proof:, L.H.S., =x⋅x, =x⋅x+0, = x ⋅ x+ x⋅X, = x ⋅ (x + X ), =x⋅1, =x, = R.H.S., , Ref. Page 63, , by, by, by, by, by, , postulate, postulate, postulate, postulate, postulate, , 2(a), 6(b), 5(a), 6(a), 2(b), , Notice that each step of, the proof of the dual, theorem is derived from, the proof of its, corresponding pair in, the original theorem, , Chapter 6: Boolean Algebra and Logic Circuits, , Slide 15/78, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 148 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Boolean Functions, § A Boolean function is an expression formed with:, § Binary variables, § Operators (OR, AND, and NOT), § Parentheses, and equal sign, § The value of a Boolean function can be either 0 or 1, § A Boolean function may be represented as:, § An algebraic expression, or, § A truth table, , Ref. Page 67, , Chapter 6: Boolean Algebra and Logic Circuits, , Slide 16/78, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 149 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Representation as an, Algebraic Expression, W = X + Y ·Z, § Variable W is a function of X, Y, and Z, can also be, written as W = f (X, Y, Z), § The RHS of the equation is called an expression, § The symbols X, Y, Z are the literals of the function, § For a given Boolean function, there may be more than, one algebraic expressions, , Ref. Page 67, , Chapter 6: Boolean Algebra and Logic Circuits, , Slide 17/78, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 150 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Representation as a Truth Table, X, , Y, , Z, , W, , 0, , 0, , 0, , 0, , 0, , 0, , 1, , 1, , 0, , 1, , 0, , 0, , 0, , 1, , 1, , 0, , 1, , 0, , 0, , 1, , 1, , 0, , 1, , 1, , 1, , 1, , 0, , 1, , 1, , 1, , 1, , 1, , (Continued on next slide), , Ref. Page 67, , Chapter 6: Boolean Algebra and Logic Circuits, , Slide 18/78, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 151 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Representation as a Truth Table, (Continued from previous slide..), , § The number of rows in the table is equal to 2n, where, n is the number of literals in the function, § The combinations of 0s and 1s for rows of this table, are obtained from the binary numbers by counting, from 0 to 2n - 1, , Ref. Page 67, , Chapter 6: Boolean Algebra and Logic Circuits, , Slide 19/78, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 152 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Minimization of Boolean Functions, § Minimization of Boolean functions deals with, § Reduction in number of literals, § Reduction in number of terms, § Minimization is achieved through manipulating, expression to obtain equal and simpler expression(s), (having fewer literals and/or terms), , (Continued on next slide), , Ref. Page 68, , Chapter 6: Boolean Algebra and Logic Circuits, , Slide 20/78, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 153 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Minimization of Boolean Functions, (Continued from previous slide..), , F1 = x ⋅ y ⋅ z + x ⋅ y ⋅ z + x ⋅ y, F1 has 3 literals (x, y, z) and 3 terms, , F2 = x ⋅ y + x ⋅ z, F2 has 3 literals (x, y, z) and 2 terms, F2 can be realized with fewer electronic components,, resulting in a cheaper circuit, , (Continued on next slide), , Ref. Page 68, , Chapter 6: Boolean Algebra and Logic Circuits, , Slide 21/78, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 154 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Minimization of Boolean Functions, (Continued from previous slide..), , x, , y, , z, , F1, , F2, , 0, , 0, , 0, , 0, , 0, , 0, , 0, , 1, , 1, , 1, , 0, , 1, , 0, , 0, , 0, , 0, , 1, , 1, , 1, , 1, , 1, , 0, , 0, , 1, , 1, , 1, , 0, , 1, , 1, , 1, , 1, , 1, , 0, , 0, , 0, , 1, , 1, , 1, , 0, , 0, , Both F1 and F2 produce the same result, , Ref. Page 68, , Chapter 6: Boolean Algebra and Logic Circuits, , Slide 22/78, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 155 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Try out some Boolean Function, Minimization, , (a ) x + x ⋅ y, , (, , (b ) x ⋅ x + y, , ), , (c) x ⋅ y ⋅ z + x ⋅ y ⋅ z + x ⋅ y, (d ) x ⋅ y + x ⋅ z + y ⋅ z, (e), , Ref. Page 69, , ( x + y ) ⋅ ( x + z ) ⋅ ( y +z ), , Chapter 6: Boolean Algebra and Logic Circuits, , Slide 23/78, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 156 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Complement of a Boolean Function, §, , §, , The complement of a Boolean function is obtained by, interchanging:, §, , Operators OR and AND, , §, , Complementing each literal, , This is based on De Morgan’s theorems, whose, general form is:, , A +A +A +...+A = A ⋅ A ⋅ A ⋅...⋅ A, A ⋅ A ⋅ A ⋅...⋅ A = A +A +A +...+A, 1, , 1, , Ref. Page 70, , 2, , 2, , 3, , 3, , n, , n, , 1, , 1, , 2, , 2, , 3, , 3, , Chapter 6: Boolean Algebra and Logic Circuits, , n, , n, , Slide 24/78, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 157 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Complementing a Boolean Function (Example), , F = x ⋅ y ⋅ z+ x ⋅ y ⋅ z, 1, , To obtain F1 , we first interchange the OR and the AND, operators giving, , ( x + y +z ) ⋅ ( x + y + z ), Now we complement each literal giving, , F = ( x+ y +z) ⋅ ( x+ y+ z ), 1, , Ref. Page 71, , Chapter 6: Boolean Algebra and Logic Circuits, , Slide 25/78, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 159 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Minterms and Maxterms for three Variables, Variables, x, , y, , z, , 0, , 0, , 0, , 0, , 0, , 1, , 0, , 1, , 0, , Minterms, Term, , Maxterms, , Designation, , m, , 0, , x+y+z, , M, , 0, , x ⋅y ⋅z, , m, , 1, , x+y+z, , M, , 1, , x ⋅y ⋅z, , m, , 2, , x+y+z, , M, , 2, , x+y+z, , M, , 3, , x+y+z, , M, , 4, , x+y+z, , M, , 5, , x+ y+z, , M, , 6, , x+y+z, , M, , 7, , 1, , 1, , x ⋅y ⋅z, , m, , 3, , 1, , 0, , 0, , x ⋅y ⋅z, , m, , 4, , x ⋅y ⋅z, , m, , 5, , x ⋅y ⋅z, x ⋅y ⋅z, , m, , 6, , m, , 7, , 1, 1, , 0, 1, 1, , 1, 0, 1, , Designation, , x ⋅y ⋅z, , 0, , 1, , Term, , Note that each minterm is the complement of its corresponding maxterm and vice-versa, , Ref. Page 71, , Chapter 6: Boolean Algebra and Logic Circuits, , Slide 27/78, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 160 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Sum-of-Products (SOP) Expression, A sum-of-products (SOP) expression is a product term, (minterm) or several product terms (minterms), logically added (ORed) together. Examples are:, , x, x+ y ⋅ z, x⋅y + x⋅y, , Ref. Page 72, , x+ y, x ⋅ y+z, x⋅y + x⋅ y⋅z, , Chapter 6: Boolean Algebra and Logic Circuits, , Slide 28/78, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 161 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Steps to Express a Boolean Function, in its Sum-of-Products Form, 1. Construct a truth table for the given Boolean, function, 2. Form a minterm for each combination of the, variables, which produces a 1 in the function, 3. The desired expression is the sum (OR) of all the, minterms obtained in Step 2, , Ref. Page 72, , Chapter 6: Boolean Algebra and Logic Circuits, , Slide 29/78, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 162 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Expressing a Function in its, Sum-of-Products Form (Example), x, , y, , z, , F1, , 0, , 0, , 0, , 0, , 0, , 0, , 1, , 1, , 0, , 1, , 0, , 0, , 0, , 1, , 1, , 0, , 1, , 0, , 0, , 1, , 1, , 0, , 1, , 0, , 1, , 1, , 0, , 0, , 1, , 1, , 1, , 1, , The following 3 combinations of the variables produce a 1:, 001, 100, and, 111, (Continued on next slide), , Ref. Page 73, , Chapter 6: Boolean Algebra and Logic Circuits, , Slide 30/78, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 165 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Steps to Express a Boolean Function, in its Product-of-Sums Form, 1. Construct a truth table for the given Boolean function, 2. Form a maxterm for each combination of the variables,, which produces a 0 in the function, 3. The desired expression is the product (AND) of all the, maxterms obtained in Step 2, , Ref. Page 74, , Chapter 6: Boolean Algebra and Logic Circuits, , Slide 33/78, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 166 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Expressing a Function in its, Product-of-Sums Form, , §, , x, , y, , z, , F1, , 0, , 0, , 0, , 0, , 0, , 0, , 1, , 1, , 0, , 1, , 0, , 0, , 0, , 1, , 1, , 0, , 1, , 0, , 0, , 1, , 1, , 0, , 1, , 0, , 1, , 1, , 0, , 0, , 1, , 1, , 1, , 1, , The following 5 combinations of variables produce a 0:, 000,, , 010,, , 011,, , 101,, , and, , 110, (Continued on next slide), , Ref. Page 73, , Chapter 6: Boolean Algebra and Logic Circuits, , Slide 34/78, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 167 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Expressing a Function in its, Product-of-Sums Form, (Continued from previous slide..), , §, , Their corresponding maxterms are:, , ( x+y+ z ) , ( x+ y+ z ), ( x+ y+ z ) ,, ( x+y+ z ) and ( x+ y+ z ), §, , Taking the AND of these maxterms, we get:, , F1 = ( x+y+z ) ⋅ ( x+ y+z ) ⋅ ( x+y+z ) ⋅ ( x+ y+z ) ⋅, , ( x+ y+z ) =M ⋅M ⋅M ⋅ M ⋅M, ( x,y,z ) = Π( 0,2,3,5,6 ), 0, , F1, Ref. Page 74, , 2, , 3, , 5, , 6, , Chapter 6: Boolean Algebra and Logic Circuits, , Slide 35/78, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 168 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Conversion Between Canonical Forms (Sum-ofProducts and Product-of-Sums), To convert from one canonical form to another,, interchange the symbol and list those numbers missing, from the original form., , Example:, , ( ) (, ) (, ), F( x,y,z ) = Σ (1,4,7 ) = Σ ( 0,2,3,5,6 ), F x,y,z = Π 0,2,4,5 = Σ 1,3,6,7, , Ref. Page 76, , Chapter 6: Boolean Algebra and Logic Circuits, , Slide 36/78, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 169 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Logic Gates, § Logic gates are electronic circuits that operate on, one or more input signals to produce standard output, signal, § Are the building blocks of all the circuits in a, computer, § Some of the most basic and useful logic gates are, AND, OR, NOT, NAND and NOR gates, , Ref. Page 77, , Chapter 6: Boolean Algebra and Logic Circuits, , Slide 37/78, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 171 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , AND Gate (Block Diagram Symbol, and Truth Table), A, , C= A⋅B, , B, Inputs, , Ref. Page 77, , Output, , A, , B, , C=A⋅B, , 0, , 0, , 0, , 0, , 1, , 0, , 1, , 0, , 0, , 1, , 1, , 1, , Chapter 6: Boolean Algebra and Logic Circuits, , Slide 39/78, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 173 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , OR Gate (Block Diagram Symbol, and Truth Table), A, B, , C=A+B, Inputs, , Ref. Page 78, , Output, , A, , B, , C=A +B, , 0, , 0, , 0, , 0, , 1, , 1, , 1, , 0, , 1, , 1, , 1, , 1, , Chapter 6: Boolean Algebra and Logic Circuits, , Slide 41/78, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 177 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , NAND Gate (Block Diagram Symbol, and Truth Table), A, B, , C= A ↑ B= A ⋅B=A +B, Inputs, , Ref. Page 79, , Output, , A, , B, , C = A +B, , 0, , 0, , 1, , 0, , 1, , 1, , 1, , 0, , 1, , 1, , 1, , 0, , Chapter 6: Boolean Algebra and Logic Circuits, , Slide 45/78, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 179 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , NOR Gate (Block Diagram Symbol, and Truth Table), A, B, , C= A ↓ B=A + B=A ⋅ B, Inputs, , Ref. Page 80, , Output, , A, , B, , C =A ⋅ B, , 0, , 0, , 1, , 0, , 1, , 0, , 1, , 0, , 0, , 1, , 1, , 0, , Chapter 6: Boolean Algebra and Logic Circuits, , Slide 47/78, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 180 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Logic Circuits, § When logic gates are interconnected to form a gating /, logic network, it is known as a combinational logic circuit, § The Boolean algebra expression for a given logic circuit, can be derived by systematically progressing from input, to output on the gates, § The three logic gates (AND, OR, and NOT) are logically, complete because any Boolean expression can be, realized as a logic circuit using only these three gates, , Ref. Page 80, , Chapter 6: Boolean Algebra and Logic Circuits, , Slide 48/78, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 184 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Constructing a Logic Circuit from a Boolean, Expression (Example 2), Boolean Expression =, , AND, , A ⋅B, , A, B, , NOT, , A ⋅B + C ⋅D + E ⋅F, A ⋅B, AND, , AND, , C ⋅D, , C, D, , A ⋅B + C ⋅D + E ⋅F, AND, , E, F, , Ref. Page 83, , E ⋅F, , E ⋅F, NOT, , Chapter 6: Boolean Algebra and Logic Circuits, , Slide 52/78, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 185 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Universal NAND Gate, § NAND gate is an universal gate, it is alone, sufficient, to, implement, any, Boolean, expression, § To understand this, consider:, , Ref. Page 84, , §, , Basic logic gates (AND, OR, and NOT) are, logically complete, , §, , Sufficient to show that AND, OR, and NOT, gates can be implemented with NAND, gates, , Chapter 6: Boolean Algebra and Logic Circuits, , Slide 53/78, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 186 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Implementation of NOT, AND and OR Gates by, NAND Gates, , A, , A ⋅A = A + A = A, (a) NOT gate implementation., , A, B, , A ⋅B, , A ⋅ B = A ⋅B, , (b) AND gate implementation., , (Continued on next slide), , Ref. Page 85, , Chapter 6: Boolean Algebra and Logic Circuits, , Slide 54/78, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 188 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Method of Implementing a Boolean Expression, with Only NAND Gates, Step 1: From the given algebraic expression, draw the logic, diagram with AND, OR, and NOT gates. Assume that, both the normal (A) and complement (A) inputs are, available, Step 2: Draw a second logic diagram with the equivalent NAND, logic substituted for each AND, OR, and NOT gate, Step 3: Remove all pairs of cascaded inverters from the, diagram as double inversion does not perform any, logical function. Also remove inverters connected to, single, external, inputs, and, complement, the, corresponding input variable, , Ref. Page 85, , Chapter 6: Boolean Algebra and Logic Circuits, , Slide 56/78, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 189 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Implementing a Boolean Expression with Only, NAND Gates (Example), Boolean Expression =, , A, B, B, D, A, C, , A ⋅B, B ⋅D, , A ⋅ B + C ⋅ ( A + B ⋅D ), A ⋅ B + C ⋅ ( A + B ⋅D ), , A +B ⋅D, C ⋅ ( A +B ⋅D ), (a) Step 1: AND/OR implementation, (Continued on next slide), , Ref. Page 87, , Chapter 6: Boolean Algebra and Logic Circuits, , Slide 57/78, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 190 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Implementing a Boolean Expression with Only, NAND Gates (Example), (Continued from previous slide..), , AND, , A, B, , 1, , A ⋅B, , OR, , 5, , AND, , B, D, , 2, , OR, , B ⋅D, , A+B ⋅D, A ⋅ B + C⋅ ( A+B ⋅D), , 3, , A, , AND, , C, , 4, , C⋅ ( A+B ⋅D), , (b) Step 2: Substituting equivalent NAND functions, (Continued on next slide), , Ref. Page 87, , Chapter 6: Boolean Algebra and Logic Circuits, , Slide 58/78, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 192 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Universal NOR Gate, § NOR gate is an universal gate, it is alone sufficient to, implement any Boolean expression, § To understand this, consider:, , Ref. Page 89, , §, , Basic logic gates (AND, OR, and NOT) are logically, complete, , §, , Sufficient to show that AND, OR, and NOT gates can, be implemented with NOR gates, , Chapter 6: Boolean Algebra and Logic Circuits, , Slide 60/78, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 193 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Implementation of NOT, OR and AND Gates by, NOR Gates, A + A = A ⋅A = A, , A, , (a) NOT gate implementation., , A, B, , A +B, , A + B = A +B, , (b) OR gate implementation., , (Continued on next slide), , Ref. Page 89, , Chapter 6: Boolean Algebra and Logic Circuits, , Slide 61/78, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 194 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Implementation of NOT, OR and AND Gates by, NOR Gates, (Continued from previous slide..), , A, , A +A=A, A + B = A ⋅B = A ⋅B, , B, , B + B =B, (c) AND gate implementation., , Ref. Page 89, , Chapter 6: Boolean Algebra and Logic Circuits, , Slide 62/78, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 195 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Method of Implementing a Boolean Expression, with Only NOR Gates, Step 1: For the given algebraic expression, draw the logic, diagram with AND, OR, and NOT gates. Assume that, both the normal ( A ) and complement A inputs are, available, , ( ), , Step 2: Draw a second logic diagram with equivalent NOR logic, substituted for each AND, OR, and NOT gate, Step 3: Remove all parts of cascaded inverters from the, diagram as double inversion does not perform any, logical function. Also remove inverters connected to, single, external, inputs, and, complement, the, corresponding input variable, , Ref. Page 89, , Chapter 6: Boolean Algebra and Logic Circuits, , Slide 63/78, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 196 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Implementing a Boolean Expression with Only, NOR Gates (Examples), (Continued from previous slide..), , A, B, , Boolean Expression A ⋅ B + C ⋅ ( A +B ⋅D ), =, A ⋅B, , B, D, A, C, , A ⋅ B + C ⋅ ( A +B ⋅D ), B ⋅D, , A +B ⋅D, C ⋅ ( A +B ⋅D ), (a) Step 1: AND/OR implementation., (Continued on next slide), , Ref. Page 90, , Chapter 6: Boolean Algebra and Logic Circuits, , Slide 64/78, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 197 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Implementing a Boolean Expression with Only, NOR Gates (Examples), (Continued from previous slide..), , AN, D, , A, 1, , A ⋅B, OR, , B, 5, , AN, D, , B, 2, , A ⋅ B + C ⋅ ( A +B ⋅D ), , B ⋅D, , D, A, , 6, , OR, , AN, D, , 3, 4, , C, , C ⋅ ( A +B ⋅D ), , A +B ⋅D, , (b) Step 2: Substituting equivalent NOR functions., (Continued on next slide), , Ref. Page 90, , Chapter 6: Boolean Algebra and Logic Circuits, , Slide 65/78, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 198 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Implementing a Boolean Expression with Only, NOR Gates (Examples), (Continued from previous slide..), , A, B, , 1, , 5, , B, D, , 6, , A ⋅ B + C ⋅ ( A +B ⋅D ), , 2, , A, C, , 3, 4, , (c) Step 3: NOR implementation., , Ref. Page 91, , Chapter 6: Boolean Algebra and Logic Circuits, , Slide 66/78, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 199 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Exclusive-OR Function, A ⊕ B =A ⋅ B + A ⋅ B, C = A ⊕ B = A ⋅B+ A ⋅B, , A, B, A, B, , ⊕, , C = A ⊕ B = A ⋅B+ A ⋅B, , Also, ( A ⊕ B ) ⊕ C = A ⊕ (B ⊕ C ) = A ⊕ B ⊕ C, (Continued on next slide), , Ref. Page 91, , Chapter 6: Boolean Algebra and Logic Circuits, , Slide 67/78, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 200 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Exclusive-OR Function (Truth Table), (Continued from previous slide..), , Inputs, , Ref. Page 92, , Output, , A, , B, , C =A ⊕B, , 0, , 0, , 0, , 0, , 1, , 1, , 1, , 0, , 1, , 1, , 1, , 0, , Chapter 6: Boolean Algebra and Logic Circuits, , Slide 68/78, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 201 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Equivalence Function with Block Diagram, Symbol, , A € B = A ⋅ B+ A ⋅ B, A, B, , C = A € B = A ⋅B+ A ⋅B, , Also, (A € B) € = A € (B € C) = A € B € C, , (Continued on next slide), , Ref. Page 91, , Chapter 6: Boolean Algebra and Logic Circuits, , Slide 69/78, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 203 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Steps in Designing Combinational Circuits, 1. State the given problem completely and exactly, 2. Interpret the problem and determine the available input, variables and required output variables, 3. Assign a letter symbol to each input and output variables, 4. Design the truth table that defines the required relations, between inputs and outputs, 5. Obtain the simplified Boolean function for each output, 6. Draw the logic circuit diagram to implement the Boolean, function, , Ref. Page 93, , Chapter 6: Boolean Algebra and Logic Circuits, , Slide 71/78, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 204 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Designing a Combinational Circuit, Example 1 – Half-Adder Design, Inputs, A, , B, , C, , S, , 0, , 0, , 0, , 0, , 0, , 1, , 0, , 1, , 1, , 0, , 0, , 1, , 1, , 1, , 1, , 0, , S = A ⋅B+ A ⋅B, C = A ⋅B, Ref. Page 93, , Outputs, , Boolean functions for the two outputs., , Chapter 6: Boolean Algebra and Logic Circuits, , Slide 72/78, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 205 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Designing a Combinational Circuit, Example 1 – Half-Adder Design, (Continued from previous slide..), , A, , A, , A ⋅B, S = A ⋅B+ A ⋅B, , B, A, B, , B, , A ⋅B, C = A ⋅B, , Logic circuit diagram to implement the Boolean functions, , Ref. Page 94, , Chapter 6: Boolean Algebra and Logic Circuits, , Slide 73/78, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 206 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Designing a Combinational Circuit, Example 2 – Full-Adder Design, Inputs, A, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 1, 1, , B, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 1, 1, , Outputs, D, 0, 1, 0, 1, 0, 1, 0, 1, , C, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 1, 1, 1, , Truth table for a full adder, , Ref. Page 94, , Chapter 6: Boolean Algebra and Logic Circuits, , S, 0, 1, 1, 0, 1, 0, 0, 1, (Continued on next slide), , Slide 74/78, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 207 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Designing a Combinational Circuit, Example 2 – Full-Adder Design, (Continued from previous slide..), , Boolean functions for the two outputs:, , S = A ⋅B ⋅D+ A ⋅B ⋅D+ A ⋅B ⋅D+ A ⋅B ⋅D, C = A ⋅B ⋅D+ A ⋅B ⋅D+ A ⋅B ⋅D+ A ⋅B ⋅D, = A ⋅B+ A ⋅D+B ⋅D (when simplified), , (Continued on next slide), , Ref. Page 95, , Chapter 6: Boolean Algebra and Logic Circuits, , Slide 75/78, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 208 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Designing a Combinational Circuit, Example 2 – Full-Adder Design, (Continued from previous slide..), , A, B, , A ⋅B ⋅ D, , D, , A, B, D, , A ⋅B ⋅ D, , S, A, B, D, , A ⋅B ⋅ D, , A, B, , A ⋅B ⋅ D, , D, , (a) Logic circuit diagram for sums, (Continued on next slide), , Ref. Page 95, , Chapter 6: Boolean Algebra and Logic Circuits, , Slide 76/78, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 210 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Key Words/Phrases, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, , Absorption law, AND gate, Associative law, Boolean algebra, Boolean expression, Boolean functions, Boolean identities, Canonical forms for, Boolean functions, Combination logic, circuits, Cumulative law, Complement of a, function, Complementation, De Morgan’s law, Distributive law, Dual identities, , Ref. Page 97, , § Equivalence function, § Exclusive-OR function, § Exhaustive enumeration, method, § Half-adder, § Idempotent law, § Involution law, § Literal, § Logic circuits, § Logic gates, § Logical addition, § Logical multiplication, § Maxterms, § Minimization of Boolean, functions, § Minterms, § NAND gate, , §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, , NOT gate, Operator precedence, OR gate, Parallel Binary Adder, Perfect induction, method, Postulates of Boolean, algebra, Principle of duality, Product-of-Sums, expression, Standard forms, Sum-of Products, expression, Truth table, Universal NAND gate, Universal NOR gate, , Chapter 6: Boolean Algebra and Logic Circuits, , Slide 78/78, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 212 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Learning Objectives, In this chapter you will learn about:, § Internal structure of processor, § Memory structure, § Determining the speed of a processor, § Different types of processors available, § Determining the capacity of a memory, § Different types of memory available, § Several other terms related to the processor and, main memory of a computer system, , Ref Page 101, , Chapter 7: Processor and Memory, , Slide 2/27, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 213 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Basic Processor & Memory Architecture, of a Computer System, ROM, , PROM, , Flash, , Main Memory (RAM), Cache, Memory, , Decode, r, Program, control register, Instruction, register, Memory, address register, , Accumulato, r register, Generalpurpose register, Generalpurpose, register, , Memory buffer, register, , I/, O, D, E, V, I, C, E, S, , Input/Output, register, Generalpurpose register, Control Unit, , General-purpose, register, , Arithmetic Logic Unit, , Central Processing Unit, , Ref Page 102, , Chapter 7: Processor and Memory, , Slide 3/27, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 214 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Central Processing Unit (CPU), § The brain of a computer system, § Performs all major calculations and comparisons, § Activates and controls the operations of other units of a, computer system, § Two basic components are, § Control Unit (CU), § Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU), § No other single component of a computer determines, its overall performance as much as the CPU, , Ref Page 101, , Chapter 7: Processor and Memory, , Slide 4/27, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 215 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Control Unit (CU), § One of the two basic components of CPU, § Acts as the central nervous system of a computer, system, § Selects and interprets, coordinates execution, , program, , instructions,, , and, , § Has some special purpose registers and a decoder to, perform these activities, , Ref Page 101, , Chapter 7: Processor and Memory, , Slide 5/27, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 216 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU), § One of the two basic components of CPU., § Actual execution of instructions takes place in ALU, § Has some special purpose registers, § Has necessary circuitry to carry out all the, arithmetic and logic operations included in the CPU, instruction set, , Ref Page 103, , Chapter 7: Processor and Memory, , Slide 6/27, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 217 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Instruction Set, §, , CPU has built-in ability to execute a particular set of machine, instructions, called its instruction set, , §, , Most CPUs have 200 or more instructions (such as add,, subtract, compare, etc.) in their instruction set, , §, , CPUs made by, instruction sets, , §, , Manufacturers tend to group their CPUs into “families” having, similar instruction sets, , §, , New CPU whose instruction set includes instruction set of its, predecessor CPU is said to be backward compatible with its, predecessor, , Ref Page 103, , different, , manufacturers, , Chapter 7: Processor and Memory, , have, , different, , Slide 7/27, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 218 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Registers, § Special memory units, called registers, are used to, hold information on a temporary basis as the, instructions are interpreted and executed by the CPU, § Registers are part of the CPU (not main memory) of a, computer, § The length of a register, sometimes called its word, size, equals the number of bits it can store, § With all other parameters being the same, a CPU with, 32-bit registers can process data twice larger than, one with 16-bit registers, , Ref Page 103, , Chapter 7: Processor and Memory, , Slide 8/27, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 219 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Functions of Commonly Used Registers, Sr., No., , Name of Register, , Function, , 1, , Memory Address (MAR), , Holds address of the active memory, location, , 2, , Memory Buffer (MBR), , Holds, contents, of, the, (read/written) memory word, , 3, , Program Control (PC), , Holds address of the next instruction to, be executed, , 4, , Accumulator (A), , Holds data to be operated upon,, intermediate results, and the results, , 5, , Instruction (I), , Holds an instruction while it is being, executed, , 6, , Input/Output (I/O), , Used to communicate with the I/O, devices, , Ref Page 104, , Chapter 7: Processor and Memory, , accessed, , Slide 9/27, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 220 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Processor Speed, §, , Computer has a built-in system clock that emits millions of, regularly spaced electric pulses per second (known as, clock cycles), , §, , It takes one cycle to perform a basic operation, such as, moving a byte of data from one memory location to, another, , §, , Normally, several clock cycles are required to fetch,, decode, and execute a single program instruction, , §, , Hence, shorter the clock cycle, faster the processor, , §, , Clock speed (number of clock cycles per second) is, measured in Megahertz (106 cycles/sec) or Gigahertz (109, cycles/sec), , Ref Page 105, , Chapter 7: Processor and Memory, , Slide 10/27, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 221 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Types of Processor, Type of, Architecture, CISC (Complex, Instruction Set, Computer), , RISC (Reduced, Instruction Set, Computer), , Features, §, §, §, §, , Large instruction set, Variable-length instructions, Variety of addressing modes, Complex & expensive to, produce, , § Small instruction set, § Fixed-length instructions, § Reduced references to, memory to retrieve operands, , Usage, , Mostly used in, personal, computers, , Mostly used in, workstations, , (Continued on next slide), , Ref Page 105, , Chapter 7: Processor and Memory, , Slide 11/27, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 222 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Types of Processor, (Continued from previous slide..), , Type of, Architecture, , EPIC (Explicitly, Parallel, Instruction, Computing), , Features, , Usage, , § Allows software to, communicate explicitly to the, processor when operations, are parallel, Mostly used in, § Uses tighter coupling, between the compiler and the high-end servers, and workstations, processor, § Enables compiler to extract, maximum parallelism in the, original code, and explicitly, describe it to the processor, , (Continued on next slide), , Ref Page 106, , Chapter 7: Processor and Memory, , Slide 12/27, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 223 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Types of Processor, (Continued from previous slide..), , Type of, Architecture, , Features, , Usage, , Multi-Core, Processor, , § Processor chip has multiple, cooler-running, more energyefficient processing cores, § Improve overall performance, by handling more work in, parallel, § can share architectural, components, such as memory, elements and memory, management, , Mostly used in, high-end servers, and workstations, , Ref Page 106, , Chapter 7: Processor and Memory, , Slide 13/27, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 224 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Main Memory, § Every computer has a temporary storage built into, the computer hardware, § It stores instructions and data of a program mainly, when the program is being executed by the CPU., § This temporary storage is known as main memory,, primary storage, or simply memory., § Physically, it consists of some chips either on the, motherboard or on a small circuit board attached to, the motherboard of a computer, § It has random access property., § It is volatile., , Ref Page 108, , Chapter 7: Processor and Memory, , Slide 14/27, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 225 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Storage Evaluation Criteria, Property, , Desirable, , Primary, storage, , Secondary, storage, , Storage, capacity, , Large storage capacity, , Small, , Large, , Access Time, , Fast access time, , Fast, , Slow, , Cost per bit of, storage, , Lower cost per bit, , High, , Low, , Volatility, , Non-volatile, , Volatile, , Non-volatile, , Random, access, , Pseudorandom, access or, sequential, access, , Access, , Ref Page 108, , Random access, , Chapter 7: Processor and Memory, , Slide 15/27, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 226 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Main Memory Organization, 0, 1, 2, 3, Addresses of, a memory, , 4, , The words, of a memory, (total N words), , 5, , N-2, N-1, Bit 1 Bit 2, , Each word, contains the same, number of bits =, word length, (Continued on next slide), , Ref Page 109, , Chapter 7: Processor and Memory, , Slide 16/27, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 227 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Main Memory Organization, (Continued from previous slide..), , § Machines having smaller word-length are slower in, operation than machines having larger word-length, § A write to a memory location is destructive to its previous, contents, § A read from a memory location is non-destructive to its, previous contents, , Ref Page 110, , Chapter 7: Processor and Memory, , Slide 17/27, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 228 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Fixed Word-length Memory, Word, 0501, 0502, , Address, Numbers, , B, , O M B, D E, , A Y, , L H, , I, , 0503, , 1024, , §, , Storage space is always allocated in multiples of word-length, , §, , Faster in speed of calculation than variable word-length memory, , §, , Normally used in large scientific computers for gaining speed of, calculation, , Ref Page 110, , Chapter 7: Processor and Memory, , Slide 18/27, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 229 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Variable Word-length Memory, 0025 B, 0026 O, 0027 M, 0028 B, , Address, Numbers, , 0029 A, 0030 Y, , Address, Numbers, , 0051, , D, , 0052, , E, , 0053, , L, , 0054, , H, , 0055, , I, , 0056, , §, , Each memory location, can store only a single, character, , §, , Slower in speed of, calculation than fixed, world-length memory, , §, , Used in small business, computers for, optimizing the use of, storage space, , 0031, , 4096, , 4096, , Note: With memory becoming cheaper and larger day-by-day, most, modern computers employ fixed-word-length memory organization, , Ref Page 110, , Chapter 7: Processor and Memory, , Slide 19/27, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 230 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Memory Capacity, § Memory capacity of a computer is equal to the number, of bytes that can be stored in its primary storage, § Its units are:, , Ref Page 111, , Kilobytes (KB), , : 1024 (210) bytes, , Megabytes (MB), , : 1,048,576 (220) bytes, , Gigabytes (GB), , : 1,073,741824 (230) bytes, , Chapter 7: Processor and Memory, , Slide 20/27, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 231 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Random Access Memory (RAM), § Primary storage of a computer is often referred to as RAM, because of its random access capability, § RAM chips are volatile memory, § A computer’s motherboard is designed in a manner that, the memory capacity can be enhanced by adding more, memory chips, § The additional RAM chips, which plug into special sockets, on the motherboard, are known as single-in-line memory, modules (SIMMs), , Ref Page 112, , Chapter 7: Processor and Memory, , Slide 21/27, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 232 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Read Only Memory (ROM), § ROM a non-volatile memory chip, § Data stored in a ROM can only be read and used – they, cannot be changed, § ROMs are mainly used to store programs and data, which, do not change and are frequently used. For example,, system boot program, , Ref Page 112, , Chapter 7: Processor and Memory, , Slide 22/27, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 233 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Types of ROMs, Type, , Usage, , Data is burnt by the manufacturer, Manufacturer-programmed, of the electronic equipment in, ROM, which it is used., User-programmed ROM, or, Programmable ROM, (PROM), , The user can load and store, “read-only” programs and data in, it, , Erasable PROM (EPROM), , The user can erase information, stored in it and the chip can be, reprogrammed to store new, information, (Continued on next slide), , Ref Page 112, , Chapter 7: Processor and Memory, , Slide 23/27, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 235 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Cache Memory, § It is commonly used for minimizing the memoryprocessor speed mismatch., § It is an extremely fast, small memory between CPU, and main memory whose access time is closer to the, processing speed of the CPU., § It is used to temporarily store very active data and, instructions during processing., Cache is pronounced as “cash”, , Ref Page 113, , Chapter 7: Processor and Memory, , Slide 25/27, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 236 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Key Words/Phrases, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, , Accumulator Register (AR), Address, Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU), Branch Instruction, Cache Memory, Central Processing Unit (CPU), CISC (Complex Instruction Set, Computer) architecture, Clock cycles, Clock speed, Control Unit, Electrically EPROM (EEPROM), Erasable Programmable ReadOnly Memory (EPROM), Explicitly Parallel Instruction, Computing (EPIC), Fixed-word-length memory, , Flash Memory, Input/Output Register (I/O), Instruction Register (I), Instruction set, Kilobytes (KB), Main Memory, Manufacturer-Programmed ROM, Megabytes (MB), Memory, Memory Address Register (MAR), Memory Buffer Register (MBR), Microprogram, Multi-core processor, Non-Volatile storage Processor, Program Control Register (PC), Programmable Read-Only Memory, (PROM), § Random Access Memory (RAM), §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, , (Continued on next slide), , Ref Page 114, , Chapter 7: Processor and Memory, , Slide 26/27, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 239 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Learning Objectives, In this chapter you will learn about:, § Secondary storage devices and their need, § Classification of commonly used secondary storage, devices, § Difference between, storage devices, , sequential, , and, , direct, , access, , § Basic principles of operation, types, and uses of, popular secondary storage devices such as magnetic, tape, magnetic disk, and optical disk, , (Continued on next slide), , Ref Page 117, , Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices, , Slide 2/98, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 241 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Limitations of Primary Storage, § Limited capacity because the cost per bit of storage, is high, § Volatile - data stored in it is lost when the electric, power is turned off or interrupted, , Ref Page 117, , Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices, , Slide 4/98, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 242 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Secondary Storage, § Used in a computer system to overcome the limitations, of primary storage, § Has virtually unlimited capacity because the cost per bit, of storage is very low, § Has an operating speed far slower than that of the, primary storage, § Used to store large volumes of data on a permanent, basis, § Also known as auxiliary memory, , Ref Page 117, , Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices, , Slide 5/98, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 243 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Classification of Commonly Used Secondary, Storage Devices, Secondary Storage, Devices, , Direct Access Devices, , Sequential Access, Device, Magnetic Tape, , Optical Disks, , Magnetic, Disks, , Floppy, Disk, , Zip Disk, , Ref Page 118, , Hard, Disks, , CD-ROM, , WORM, (CD-R), , CD-RW, , Memory Storage, Devices, , DVD, , Flash, Drive, , Memory, Card, , Disk Pack Winchester Disk, , Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices, , Slide 6/98, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 244 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Sequential-access Storage Devices, § Arrival at the desired storage location may be preceded, by sequencing through other locations, § Data can only be retrieved in the same sequence in which, it is stored, § Access time varies according to the storage location of, the information being accessed, § Suitable for sequential processing applications where, most, if not all, of the data records need to be processed, one after another, § Magnetic tape is a typical example of such a storage, device, , Ref Page 118, , Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices, , Slide 7/98, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 245 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Direct-access Storage Devices, § Devices where any storage location may be selected, and accessed at random, § Permits access to individual information in a more, direct or immediate manner, § Approximately equal access time is required for, accessing information from any storage location, § Suitable for direct processing applications such as online ticket booking systems, on-line banking systems, § Magnetic, optical, and magneto-optical disks are, typical examples of such a storage device, , Ref Page 118, , Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices, , Slide 8/98, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 246 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Magnetic Tape Basics, § Commonly used sequential-access secondary storage, device, § Physically, the tape medium is a plastic ribbon, which, is usually ½ inch or ¼ inch wide and 50 to 2400 feet, long, § Plastic ribbon is coated with a magnetizable recording, material such as iron-oxide or chromium dioxide, § Data are recorded on the tape in the form of tiny, invisible magnetized and non-magnetized spots, (representing 1s and 0s) on its coated surface, § Tape ribbon is stored in reels or a small cartridge or, cassette, , Ref Page 119, , Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices, , Slide 9/98, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 247 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Magnetic Tape - Storage Organization, (Example 1), A frame, , Track/Channel, , Characters for, corresponding codes, , numbers, 0 12 3 4 5, Parity bit, Zone, , 6 7, , 8, , 9, , A, , B C D E F G, , 7, Each vertical, , 6, , line represents, , 5, , a binary 1 bit, , 4, Numeric, , 3, 2, 1, , Illustrates the concepts of frames, tracks, parity bit, and character-by-character data, storage, , Ref Page 119, , Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices, , Slide 10/98, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 248 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Magnetic Tape - Storage Organization (Example 2), Track/ channel, numbers, , 0 1, Track, representation, , 8’s digit, 2’s digit, Added zone, Added zone, Zone, Parity bit, Zone, Unit’s digit, 4’s digit, , Characters for, corresponding codes, , A frame for each, character, , 2 3 4, , 5, , 6 7 8, , 9, , A, , 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1, , B, , Each vertical, line represents, a binary, 1 bit, , Illustrates the concepts of frames, tracks, parity bit, and character-by-character data, storage, , Ref Page 120, , Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices, , Slide 11/98, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 250 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Magnetic Tape - Storage Organization (Example 4), , File header, label, , File header, label of next, file, , File trailer, label, Tape motion, , IBG, , Block of, records, , IBG, , Block of, records, , IBG, , IBG, , Illustrates the concepts of multiple blocks of records forming a file that is, separated from other files by a file header label in the beginning and a file trailer, label at the end of the file, , Ref Page 120, , Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices, , Slide 13/98, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 252 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Magnetic Tape Storage Capacity, § Storage capacity of a tape =, Data recording density x Length, § Data recording density is the amount of data that can be, stored on a given length of tape. It is measured in bytes, per inch (bpi), § Tape density varies from 800 bpi in older systems to, 77,000 bpi in some of the modern systems, § Actual storage capacity of a tape may be anywhere from, 35% to 70% of its total storage capacity, depending on, the storage organization used, , Ref Page 120, , Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices, , Slide 15/98, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 253 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Magnetic Tape – Data Transfer Rate, § Refers to characters/second that can be transmitted to, the memory from the tape, § Transfer rate measurement unit is bytes/second (bps), § Value depends on the data recording density and the, speed with which the tape travels under the read/write, head, § A typical value of data transfer rate is 7.7 MB/second, , Ref Page 121, , Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices, , Slide 16/98, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 254 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Magnetic Tape – Tape Drive, § Used for writing/reading of data to/from a magnetic, tape ribbon, § Different for tape reels, cartridges, and cassettes, § Has read/write heads for reading/writing of data on, tape, § A magnetic tape reel/cartridge/cassette has to be first, loaded on a tape drive for reading/writing of data on it, § When processing is complete, the tape is removed, from the tape drive for off-line storage, , Ref Page 121, , Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices, , Slide 17/98, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 255 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Magnetic Tape – Tape Controller, § Tape drive is connected to and controlled by a tape, controller that interprets the commands for operating the, tape drive, § A typical set of commands supported by a tape controller, are:, Read, , reads one block of data, , Write, , writes one block of data, , Write tape header label, , used to update the contents of tape header label, , Erase tape, , erases the data recorded on a tape, , Back space one block, , rewinds the tape to the beginning of previous block, (Continued on next slide), , Ref Page 121, , Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices, , Slide 18/98, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 256 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Magnetic Tape – Tape Controller, (Continued from previous slide..), , Forward space one block, , forwards the tape to the beginning, of next block, , Forward space one file, , forwards the tape to the beginning, of next file, , Rewind, , fully rewinds the tape, , Unload, , releases the tape drive’s grip so, that the tape spool can be, unmountedfrom the tape drive, , Ref Page 121, , Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices, , Slide 19/98, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 258 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Half-inch Tape Reel, § Uses ½ inch wide tape ribbon stored on a tape reel, § Uses parallel representation method of storing data, in, which data are read/written a byte at a time, § Uses a read/write head assembly, read/write head for each track, , that, , has, , one, , § Commonly used as archival storage for off-line storage, of data and for exchange of data and programs, between organizations, § Fast getting replaced by tape cartridge, streamer tape,, and digital audio tape they are more compact, cheaper, and easier to handle, , Ref Page 122, , Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices, , Slide 21/98, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 261 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Half-inch Tape Cartridge, § Uses ½ inch wide tape ribbon sealed in a cartridge, § Has 36 tracks, as opposed to 9 tracks for most half-inch, tape reels, § Stores data using parallel representation. Hence, 4 bytes, of data are stored across the width of the tape. This, enables more bytes of data to be stored on the same, length of tape, § Tape drive reads/writes on the top half of the tape in, one direction and on the bottom half in the other, direction, , Ref Page 122, , Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices, , Slide 24/98, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 263 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Quarter-inch Streamer Tape, § Uses ¼ inch wide tape ribbon sealed in a cartridge, § Uses serial representation of data recording (data bits, are aligned in a row one after another in tracks), § Can have from 4 to 30 tracks, depending on the tape, drive, § Depending on the tape drive, the read/write head, reads/writes data on one/two/four tracks at a time, § Eliminates the need for the start/stop operation of, traditional tape drives, , (Continued on next slide), , Ref Page 123, , Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices, , Slide 26/98, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 264 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Quarter-inch Streamer Tape, (Continued from previous slide..), , § Can read/write data more efficiently than the, traditional tape drives because there is no start/stop, mechanism, § Make more efficient utilization of tape storage area, than traditional tape drives because IBGs are not, needed, § The standard data formats used in these tapes is, known as the QIC standard, , Ref Page 123, , Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices, , Slide 27/98, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 265 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Quarter-inch Streamer Tape (Example), Recording area, begins here, , Recording area, ends here, , Tracks, 1, , 1 0, .., 0 0, , 2, 3, 4, 5, , 1, , 1, , 0, , 0, , 1, , 1, , 1, , 0, , 1, , 0., , 1, , 0, , 1, , 0, , 0, , 1, , 1, , 1, , 0, , 1..., , Unused, portion, of the, tape, , Unused, portion, of the, tape, , 6, 7, 8, , Ref Page 123, , Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices, , Slide 28/98, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 266 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , 4mm Digital Audio Tape (DAT), § Uses 4mm wide tape ribbon sealed in a cartridge, § Has very high data recording density, § Uses a tape drive that uses helical scan technique for, data recording, in which two read heads and two write, heads are built into a small wheel, § DAT drives use a data recording format called Digital, Data Storage (DDS), which provides three levels of, error-correcting code, § Typical capacity, 4 GB to 14 GB, , Ref Page 123, , of, , DAT, , cartridges, , Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices, , varies, , from, , Slide 29/98, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 268 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Advantages of Magnetic Tapes, § Storage capacity is virtually unlimited because as many, tapes as required can be used for storing very large, data sets, § Cost per bit of storage is very low for magnetic tapes., § Tapes can be erased and reused many times, § Tape reels and cartridges are compact and light in, weight, § Easy to handle and store., § Very large amount of data can be stored in a small, storage space, , (Continued on next slide), , Ref Page 123, , Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices, , Slide 31/98, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 269 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Advantages of Magnetic Tapes, (Continued from previous slide..), , § Compact size and light weight, § Magnetic tape reels and cartridges are also easily, portable from one place to another, § Often used for transferring data and programs from, one computer to another that are not linked together, , Ref Page 123, , Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices, , Slide 32/98, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 270 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Limitations of Magnetic Tapes, § Due to their sequential access nature, they are not, suitable for storage of those data that frequently, require to be accessed randomly, § Must be stored in a dust-free environment because, specks of dust can cause tape-reading errors, § Must be stored in an environment with properly, controlled temperature and humidity levels, § Tape ribbon may get twisted due to warping, resulting, in loss of stored data, § Should be properly labeled so that some useful data, stored on a particular tape is not erased by mistake, , Ref Page 123, , Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices, , Slide 33/98, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 271 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Uses of Magnetic Tapes, § For applications that are based on sequential data, processing, § Backing up of data for off-line storage, § Archiving of infrequently used data, § Transferring of data from one computer to another that, are not linked together, § As a distribution media for software by vendors, , Ref Page 124, , Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices, , Slide 34/98, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 272 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Magnetic Disk - Basics, § Commonly used direct-access secondary storage device., § Physically, a magnetic disk is a thin, circular, plate/platter made of metal or plastic that is usually, coated on both sides with a magnetizable recording, material such as iron-oxide, § Data are recorded on the disk in the form of tiny, invisible magnetized and non-magnetized spots, (representing 1s and 0s) on the coated surfaces of the, disk, § The disk is stored in a specially designed protective, envelope or cartridge, or several of them are stacked, together in a sealed, contamination-free container, , Ref Page 124, , Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices, , Slide 35/98, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 273 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Magnetic Disk – Storage Organization, Illustrates the Concept of Tracks, Track 000, , 200, Tracks, , …, , Ref Page 125, , Track, 199, , …, , §, , A disk’s surface is divided into, a, number, of, invisible, concentric circles called tracks, , §, , The tracks are numbered, consecutively from outermost, to innermost starting from, zero, , §, , The number of tracks on a, disk may be as few as 40 on, small, low-capacity disks, to, several thousand on large,, high-capacity disks, , Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices, , Slide 36/98, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 274 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Magnetic Disk – Storage Organization, Illustrates the Concept of Sectors, A sector, , Ref Page 125, , §, , Each track of a disk is, subdivided into sectors, , §, , There are 8 or, sectors per track, , §, , A sector typically contains, 512 bytes, , §, , Disk drives are designed to, read/write, only, whole, sectors at a time, , Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices, , more, , Slide 37/98, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 275 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Magnetic Disk – Storage Organization, Illustrates Grouping of Tracks and Use of Different, Number of Sectors in Tracks of Different Groups for, Increased Storage Capacity, , Ref Page 125, , §, , Innermost group of tracks, has 8 sectors/track, , §, , Next groups of tracks has, 9 sectors/track, , §, , Outermost group of tracks, has 10 sectors/track, , Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices, , Slide 38/98, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 276 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Magnetic Disk – Disk Address or, Address of a Record on a Disk, § Disk address represents the physical location of the, record on the disk, § It is comprised of the sector number, track number,, and surface number (when double-sided disks are, used), § This scheme is called the CHS addressing or CylinderHead-Sector addressing. The same is also referred to, as disk geometry, , Ref Page 126, , Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices, , Slide 39/98, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 277 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Magnetic Disk – Storage Organization, (Illustrates the Concept of Cylinder), Upper surface, not used, , Central shaft, Read/Write head, , Surface - 0, Surface - 1, , Cylinder, , Surface - 2, Surface - 3, Surface - 4, Surface - 5, , Direction of, movement of, access arms, assembly, , Access arms, assembly, , Lower surface, not used, No. of disk platters = 4, No. of usable surfaces = 6. A set of corresponding, tracks on all the 6 surfaces is called a cylinder., , Ref Page 127, , Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices, , Slide 40/98, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 279 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Magnetic Disk Pack – Access Mechanism, One read/write, head per surface, , Central shaft, , Direction of, movement of, , access arms, assembly, , Access arms, assembly, Vertical cross section of a disk system. There is one read/write head per, recording surface, , Ref Page 127, , Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices, , Slide 42/98, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 280 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Magnetic Disk – Access Time, § Disk access time is the interval between the instant a, computer makes a request for transfer of data from a, disk system to the primary storage and the instant this, operation is completed, § Disk access time depends on the following three, parameters:, – Seek Time: It is the time required to position the, read/write head over the desired track, as soon as, a read/write command is received by the disk unit, – Latency: It is the time required to spin the desired, sector under the read/write head, once the, read/write head is positioned on the desired track, , Ref Page 128, , Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices, , Slide 43/98, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 281 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Magnetic Disk – Access Time, – Transfer Rate: It is the rate at which data are, read/written to the disk, once the read/write head, is positioned over the desired sector, § As the transfer rate is negligible as compared to seek, time and latency,, Average access time, = Average seek time + Average latency, , Ref Page 128, , Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices, , Slide 44/98, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 282 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Disk Formatting, § Process of preparing a new disk by the computer, system in which the disk is to be used., § For this, a new (unformatted) disk is inserted in the disk, drive of the computer system and the disk formatting, command is initiated, § Low-level disk formatting, § Disk drive’s read/write head lays down a magnetic, pattern on the disk’s surface, § Enables the disk drive to organize and store the, data in the data organization defined for the disk, drive of the computer, , (Continued on next slide), , Ref Page 129, , Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices, , Slide 45/98, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 283 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Disk Formatting, (Continued from previous slide..), , § OS-level disk formatting, § Creates the File Allocation Table (FAT) that is a, table with the sector and track locations of data, § Leaves sufficient space for FAT to grow, § Scans and marks bad sectors, § One of the basic tasks handled by the computer’s, operating system, § Enables the use of disks manufactured by third party, vendors into one’s own computer system, , Ref Page 129, , Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices, , Slide 46/98, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 284 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Magnetic Disk – Disk Drive, § Unit used for reading/writing of data on/from a, magnetic disk, § Contains all the mechanical, electrical and, electronic components for holding one or more, disks and for reading or writing of information on, to it, , (Continued on next slide), , Ref Page 129, , Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices, , Slide 47/98, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 285 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Magnetic Disk – Disk Drive, (Continued from previous slide..), , § Although disk drives vary greatly in their shape, size, and disk formatting pattern, they can be broadly, classified into two types:, – Those with interchangeable magnetic disks,, which allow the loading and unloading of, magnetic disks as and when they are needed for, reading/writing of data on to them, – Those with fixed magnetic disks, which come, along with a set of permanently fixed disks. The, disks are not removable from their disk drives, , Ref Page 129, , Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices, , Slide 48/98, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 286 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Magnetic Disk – Disk Controller, § Disk drive is connected to and controlled by a disk, controller, which interprets the commands for, operating the disk drive, § Typically supports only read and write commands,, which, need, disk, address, (surface, number,, cylinder/track number, and sector number) as, parameters, § Connected to and controls more than one disk drive, in, which case the disk drive number is also needed as a, parameters of read and write commands, , Ref Page 130, , Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices, , Slide 49/98, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 288 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Floppy Disks, § Round, flat piece of flexible plastic disks coated with, magnetic oxide, § So called because they are made of flexible plastic, plates which can bend, § Also known as floppies or diskettes, § Plastic disk is encased in a square plastic or vinyl jacket, cover that gives handling protection to the disk surface, , (Continued on next slide), , Ref Page 130, , Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices, , Slide 51/98, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 289 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Floppy Disks, (Continued from previous slide..), , § The two types of floppy disks in use today are:, § 5¼-inch diskette, whose diameter is 5¼-inch., It is encased in a square, flexible vinyl jacket, § 3½-inch diskette, whose diameter is 3½-inch., It is encased in a square, hard plastic jacket, § Most popular and inexpensive secondary storage, medium used in small computers, , Ref Page 131, , Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices, , Slide 52/98, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 290 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , A 5¼-inch Floppy Disk, Manufacturer’s, label, , User’s label for, identification purpose, , Write protect notch, , 5¼ - inch, , Drive spindle, hole in disk, , Drive access opening, in jacket, Aperture in the jacket, through which the, read/write head makes, direct contact with the, disk surface, , 5¼ - inch, A 5¼-inch floppy disk enclosed within jacket. The drive mechanism clamps, on to a portion of the disk exposed by the drive access opening in the jacket, , Ref Page 131, , Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices, , Slide 53/98, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 291 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , A 3½-inch Floppy Disk, , Floppy disk, eject button, , 3½” - inch, , Light indicator, (blinks when, read/write, operation takes, place), (a) Front view of a floppy disk, drive., , Opening for inserting the, disk inside the drive, , Sliding metal, piece cover, , User’s label for, identification, Write-protect, plastic tab, 3½” - inch, (b) A 3½ - inch floppy disk., , Ref Page 131, , Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices, , Slide 54/98, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 292 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Storage Capacities of Various Types of Floppy, Disks, , Size, (Diameter, in inches), , No. of, surfaces, , No. of, tracks, , No. of, sectors/track, , No. of, bytes/sector, , Capacity, in bytes, , 5¼, , 2, , 40, , 9, , 512, , 3,68,640, , 360 KB, , 5¼, , 2, , 80, , 15, , 512, , 12,28,800, , 1.2 MB, , 3½, , 2, , 40, , 18, , 512, , 7,37,280, , 720 KB, , 3½, , 2, , 80, , 18, , 512, , 14,74,560, , 1.4 MB, , 3½, , 2, , 80, , 36, , 512, , 29,49,120, , 2.88 MB, , Ref Page 131, , Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices, , Approximate, capacity, , Slide 55/98, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 293 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Hard Disks, § Round, flat piece of rigid metal (frequently aluminium), disks coated with magnetic oxide, § Come in many sizes, ranging from 1 to 14-inch, diameter., § Depending on how they are packaged, hard disks are of, three types:, § Zip/Bernoulli disks, § Disk packs, § Winchester disks, § Primary on-line secondary storage device for most, computer systems today, , Ref Page 132, , Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices, , Slide 56/98, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 294 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Zip/Bernoulli Disks, § Uses a single hard disk platter encased in a plastic, cartridge, § Disk drives may be portable or fixed type, § Fixed type is part of the computer system, permanently, connected to it, § Portable type can be carried to a computer system,, connected to it for the duration of use, and then can be, disconnected and taken away when the work is done, § Zip disks can be easily inserted/removed from a zip drive, just as we insert/remove floppy disks in a floppy disk, drive, , Ref Page 132, , Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices, , Slide 57/98, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 295 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Disk Packs, § Uses multiple (two or more) hard disk, mounted on a single central shaft, , platters, , § Disk drives have a separate read/write head for each, usable disk surface (the upper surface of the top-most, disk and the lower surface of the bottom most disk is, not used), § Disks are of removable/interchangeable type in the, sense that they have to be mounted on the disk drive, before they can be used, and can be removed and, kept off-line when not in use, , Ref Page 132, , Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices, , Slide 58/98, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 296 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Winchester Disks, § Uses multiple (two or more) hard disk platters, mounted on a single central shaft, § Hard disk platters and the disk drive are sealed, together in a contamination-free container and cannot, be separated from each other, , (Continued on next slide), , Ref Page 132, , Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices, , Slide 59/98, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 297 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Winchester Disks, (Continued from previous slide..), , § For the same number of disks, Winchester disks have, larger storage capacity than disk packs because:, – All the surfaces of all disks are used for data, recording, They employ much greater precision of data recording,, resulting in greater data recording density, § Named after the .30-30 Winchester rifle because the, early Winchester disk systems had two 30-MB disks, sealed together with the disk drive, , Ref Page 132, , Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices, , Slide 60/98, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 298 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Advantages of Magnetic Disks, § More suitable than magnetic tapes for a wider range of, applications because they support direct access of data, § Random access property enables them to be used, simultaneously by multiple users as a shared device. A, tape is not suitable for such type of usage due to its, sequential-access property, § Suitable for both on-line and off-line storage of data, , (Continued on next slide), , Ref Page 133, , Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices, , Slide 61/98, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 299 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Advantages of Magnetic Disks, (Continued from previous slide..), , § Except for the fixed type Winchester disks, the storage, capacity of other magnetic disks is virtually unlimited, as many disks can be used for storing very large data, sets, § Due to their low cost and high data recording densities,, the cost per bit of storage is low for magnetic disks., § An additional cost benefit is that magnetic disks can be, erased and reused many times, § Floppy disks and zip disks are compact and light in, weight. Hence they are easy to handle and store., § Very large amount of data can be stored in a small, storage space, (Continued on next slide), , Ref Page 133, , Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices, , Slide 62/98, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 300 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Advantages of Magnetic Disks, § Due to their compact size and light weight, floppy disks, and zip disks are also easily portable from one place to, another, § They are often used for transferring data and programs, from one computer to another, which are not linked, together, § Any information desired from a disk storage can be, accessed in a few milliseconds because it is a direct, access storage device, , (Continued on next slide), , Ref Page 133, , Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices, , Slide 63/98, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 301 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Advantages of Magnetic Disks, (Continued from previous slide..), , § Data transfer rate for a magnetic disk system is, normally higher than a tape system, § Magnetic disks are less vulnerable to data corruption, due to careless handling or unfavorable temperature, and humidity conditions than magnetic tapes, , Ref Page 133, , Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices, , Slide 64/98, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 302 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Limitations of Magnetic Disks, § Although used for both random processing and, sequential processing of data, for applications of the, latter type, it may be less efficient than magnetic, tapes, § More difficult to maintain the security of information, stored on shared, on-line secondary storage devices,, as compared to magnetic tapes or other types of, magnetic disks, , (Continued on next slide), , Ref Page 134, , Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices, , Slide 65/98, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 303 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Limitations of Magnetic Disks, (Continued from previous slide..), , § For Winchester disks, a disk crash or drive failure often, results in loss of entire stored data. It is not easy to, recover the lost data. Suitable backup procedures are, suggested for data stored on Winchester disks, § Some types of magnetic disks, such as disk packs and, Winchester disks, are not so easily portable like, magnetic tapes, § On a cost-per-bit basis, the cost of magnetic disks is, low, but the cost of magnetic tapes is even lower, , (Continued on next slide), , Ref Page 134, , Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices, , Slide 66/98, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 304 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Limitations of Magnetic Disks, (Continued from previous slide..), , § Must be stored in a dust-free environment, § Floppy disks, zip disks and disk packs should be, labeled properly to prevent erasure of useful data by, mistake, , Ref Page 134, , Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices, , Slide 67/98, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 305 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Uses of Magnetic Disks, §, , For applications that are based on random data, processing, , §, , As a shared on-line secondary storage device., Winchester disks and disk packs are often used for, this purpose, , §, , As a backup device for off-line storage of data. Floppy, disks, zip disks, and disk packs are often used for this, purpose, , (Continued on next slide), , Ref Page 134, , Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices, , Slide 68/98, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 306 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Uses of Magnetic Disks, (Continued from previous slide..), , §, , Archiving of data not used frequently, but may be, used once in a while. Floppy disks, zip disks, and, disk packs are often used for this purpose, , §, , Transferring of data and programs from one, computer to another that are not linked together., Floppy disks and zip disks are often used for this, purpose, , §, , Distribution of software by vendors. Originally sold, software or software updates are often distributed by, vendors on floppy disks and zip disks, , Ref Page 134, , Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices, , Slide 69/98, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 307 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Optical Disk – Basics, §, , Consists of a circular disk, which is coated with a thin, metal or some other material that is highly reflective, , §, , Laser beam technology is used for recording/reading, of data on the disk, , §, , Also known as laser disk / optical laser disk, due to, the use of laser beam technology, , §, , Proved to be a promising random access medium for, high capacity secondary storage because it can store, extremely large amounts of data in a limited space, , Ref Page 134, , Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices, , Slide 70/98, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 308 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Optical Disk – Storage Organization, § Has one long spiral track, which starts at the outer edge, and spirals inward to the center, § Track is divided into equal size sectors, , (a) Track pattern on an optical disk, , (b) Track pattern on a magnetic disk, , Difference in track patterns on optical and magnetic disks., , Ref Page 135, , Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices, , Slide 71/98, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 309 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Optical Disk – Storage Capacity, Storage capacity of an optical disk, = Number of sectors, × Number of bytes per sector, , The most popular optical disk uses a disk of 5.25 inch, diameter with storage capacity of around 650 Megabytes, , Ref Page 135, , Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices, , Slide 72/98, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 310 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Optical Disk – Access Mechanism, Laser, beam, source, , Laser, beam, source, , Prism, , Prism, Sensor, Laser beam gets, reflect by a land, (represents1), , Sensor, Laser beam gets, scattered by a pit, (represents 0), Land, Pit, , Ref Page 136, , Pit, , Land, , Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices, , Land, Pit, , Slide 73/98, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 311 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Optical Disk – Access Time, §, , With optical disks, each sector has the same length, regardless of whether it is located near or away from, the disk’s center, , §, , Rotation speed of the disk must vary inversely with, the radius. Hence, optical disk drives use a constant, linear velocity (CLV) encoding scheme, , §, , Leads to slower data access time (larger access time), for optical disks than magnetic disks, , §, , Access times for optical disks are typically in the, range of 100 to 300 milliseconds and that of hard, disks are in the range of 10 to 30 milliseconds, , Ref Page 137, , Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices, , Slide 74/98, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 312 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Optical Disk Drive, §, , Uses laser beam technology for reading/writing of data, , §, , Has no mechanical read/write access arm, , §, , Uses a constant linear velocity (CLV) encoding scheme,, in which the rotational speed of the disk varies inversely, with the radius, , Ref Page 136, , Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices, , Slide 75/98, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 313 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Optical Disk Drive, Light, indicator, , A headphone socket, enables the user to, plug-in head-phones, and listen to recorded, sound when the drive, is used to play music, CDs., , Ref Page 137, , Volume control button used, when the drive is used to, play a music CD, , Optical disk, , Is placed on, top of this, groove, Tray eject Direction of, button, movement of, the tray, , Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices, , Optical disk tray, , Slide 76/98, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 314 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Types of Optical Disks, The types of optical disks in use today are:, CD-ROM, § Stands for Compact Disk-Read Only Memory, § Packaged as shiny, silver color metal disk of 5¼, inch (12cm) diameter, having a storage capacity of, about 650 Megabytes, § Disks come pre-recorded and, stored on them cannot be altered, , the, , information, , § Pre-stamped (pre-recorded) by their suppliers, by a, process called mastering, (Continued on next slide), , Ref Page 138, , Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices, , Slide 77/98, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 315 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Types of Optical Disks, (Continued from previous slide..), , § Provide an excellent medium to distribute large, amounts of data in electronic dorm at low cost., § A single CD-ROM disk can hold a complete, encyclopedia, or a dictionary, or a world atlas, or, biographies of great people, etc, § Used for distribution of electronic version of, conference proceedings, journals, magazines,, books, and multimedia applications such as video, games, § Used by software vendors for distribution of, software to their customers, , Ref Page 138, , Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices, , Slide 78/98, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 316 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Types of Optical Disks, WORM Disk / CD-Recordable (CD-R), § Stands for Write Once Read Many. Data can be written, only once on them, but can be read many times, § Same as CD-ROM and has same storage capacity, § Allow users to create their own CD-ROM disks by using, a CD-recordable (CD-R) drive that can be attached to, a computer as a regular peripheral device, § Data to be recorded can be written on its surface in, multiple recording sessions, , (Continued on next slide), , Ref Page 138, , Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices, , Slide 79/98, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 317 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Types of Optical Disks, (Continued from previous slide..), , § Sessions after the first one are always additive, and cannot alter the etched/burned information of, earlier sessions, § Information recorded on them can be read by any, ordinary CD-ROM drive, § They are used for data archiving and for making a, permanent record of data. For example, many, banks use them for storing their daily transactions, , Ref Page 138, , Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices, , Slide 80/98, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 318 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Types of Optical Disks, CD-Read/Write (CD-RW), § Same as CD-R and has same storage capacity, § Allow users to create their own CD-ROM disks by, using a CD-recordable (CD-R) drive that can be, attached to a computer as a regular peripheral, device, § Data to be recorded can be written on its surface in, multiple recording sessions, § Made of metallic alloy layer whose chemical, properties are changed during burn and erase, § Can be erased and written afresh, , Ref Page 138, , Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices, , Slide 81/98, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 319 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Types of Optical Disks, Digital Video / Versatile Disk (DVD), § Looks same as CD-ROM but has capacity of 4.7 GB or, 8.5 GB, § Designed primarily to store and distribute movies, § Can be used for storage of large data, § Allows storage of video in 4:3 or 16:9 aspect-ratios in, MPEG-2 video format using NTSC or PAL resolution, § Audio is usually Dolby® Digital (AC-3) or Digital, Theater System (DTS) and can be either monaural or, 5.1 Surround Sound, , Ref Page 138, , Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices, , Slide 82/98, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 320 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Advantages of Optical Disks, §, , The cost-per-bit of storage for optical disks is very low, because of their low cost and enormous storage density., , §, , The use of a single spiral track makes optical disks an ideal, storage medium for reading large blocks of sequential data,, such as music., , §, , Optical disk drives do not have any mechanical read/write, heads to rub against or crash into the disk surface. This, makes optical disks a more reliable storage medium than, magnetic tapes or magnetic disks., , §, , Optical disks have a data storage life in excess of 30 years., This makes them a better storage medium for data, archiving as compared to magnetic tapes or magnetic disks., , Ref Page 139, , Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices, , Slide 83/98, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 321 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Advantages of Optical Disks, §, , As data once stored on an optical disk becomes, permanent,, danger, of, stored, data, getting, inadvertently erased/overwritten is removed, , §, , Due to their compact size and light weight, optical, disks are easy to handle, store, and port from one, place to another, , §, , Music CDs can be played on a computer having a CDROM drive along with a sound board and speakers., This allows computer systems to be also used as, music systems, , Ref Page 139, , Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices, , Slide 84/98, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 322 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Limitations of Optical Disks, §, , It is largely read-only (permanent) storage medium., Data once recorded, cannot be erased and hence the, optical disks cannot be reused, , §, , The data access speed for optical disks is slower than, magnetic disks, , §, , Optical disks require a complicated drive mechanism, , Ref Page 139, , Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices, , Slide 85/98, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 323 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Uses of Optical Disks, §, , For distributing large amounts of data at low cost, , §, , For distribution of electronic version of conference, proceedings, journals, magazines, books, product, catalogs, etc, , §, , For distribution of new or upgraded versions of, software products by software vendors, , (Continued on next slide), , Ref Page 140, , Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices, , Slide 86/98, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 324 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Uses of Optical Disks, (Continued from previous slide..), , §, , For storage and distribution of a wide variety of, multimedia applications, , §, , For archiving of data, which are not used frequently,, but which may be used once in a while, , §, , WORM disks are often used by end-user companies to, make permanent storage of their own proprietary, information, , Ref Page 140, , Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices, , Slide 87/98, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 325 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Memory Storage Devices, Flash Drive (Pen Drive), § Relatively new secondary storage device based on, flash memory, enabling easy transport of data from, one computer to another, § Compact device of the size of a pen, comes in, various shapes and stylish designs and may have, different added features, § Plug-and-play device that simply plugs into a USB, (Universal Serial Bus) port of a computer, treated as, removable drive, § Available storage capacities are 8MB, 16MB, 64MB,, 128MB, 256MB, 512MB, 1GB, 2GB, 4GB, and 8GB, , Ref Page 140, , Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices, , Slide 88/98, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 327 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Mass Storage Devices, §, , As the name implies, these are storage systems, having several trillions of bytes of data storage, capacity, , §, , They use multiple units of a storage media as a single, secondary storage device, , §, , The three commonly used types are:, 1. Disk array, which uses a set of magnetic disks, 2. Automated tape library, which uses a set of, magnetic tapes, 3. CD-ROM Jukebox, which uses a set of CD-ROMs, , §, , They are relatively slow having average access times, in seconds, , Ref Page 142, , Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices, , Slide 90/98, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 328 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Disk Array, §, , Set of hard disks and hard disk drives with a, controller mounted in a single box, forming a single, large storage unit, , §, , It is commonly known as a RAID (Redundant Array, of Inexpensive Disks), , §, , As a secondary storage device, provides enhanced, storage capacity, enhanced performance, and, enhanced reliability, , Ref Page 142, , Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices, , Slide 91/98, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 329 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Disk Array, §, , Enhanced storage capacity is achieved by using, multiple disks, , §, , Enhanced performance is achieved by using parallel, data transfer technique from multiple disks, , §, , Enhanced reliability is achieved by using techniques, such as mirroring or striping, , §, , In mirroring, the system makes exact copies of files, on two hard disks, , §, , In striping, a file is partitioned into smaller parts and, different parts of the file are stored on different disks, , Ref Page 142, , Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices, , Slide 92/98, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 331 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Automated Tape Library, §, , Set of magnetic tapes and magnetic tape drives with, a controller mounted in a single box, forming a, single large storage unit, , §, , Large tape library can accommodate up to several, hundred high capacity magnetic tapes bringing the, storage capacity of the storage unit to several, terabytes, , §, , Typically used for data archiving and as on-line data, backup devices for automated backup in large, computer centers, , Ref Page 142, , Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices, , Slide 94/98, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 332 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , CD-ROM Jukebox, §, , Set of CD-ROMs and CD-ROM drives with a, controller mounted in a single box, forming a single, large storage unit, , §, , Large CD-ROM jukebox can accommodate up to, several hundred CD-ROM disks bringing the storage, capacity of the storage unit to several terabytes, , §, , Used for archiving read-only data in such, applications as on-line museums, on-line digital, libraries, on-line encyclopedia, etc, , Ref Page 143, , Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices, , Slide 95/98, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 333 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Storage Hierarchy, As a single type of storage is not superior in speed of access, capacity, and, cost, most computer systems make use of a hierarchy of storage, technologies as shown below., , Smaller capacity, faster, access time, and higher, cost per bit stored, , Cache, memory, Main, memory, , Larger capacity,, slower access time,, and lower cost per, bit stored, , On-line, direct-access and, sequential-access secondary, storage device such as hard disk, Off-line, direct-access and sequential-access, secondary storage devices such as magnetic, tape, floppy disk, zip disk, WORM disk, etc., Mass storage devices such as tape library, CD juke box, etc., , Ref Page 144, , Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices, , Slide 96/98, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 334 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Key Words/Phrases, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, , Automated tape library, Auxiliary memory, Block, Blocking, Blocking factory, CD-ROM, CD-ROM jukebox, Check bit, Cylinder, Data transfer rate, Direct access device, Disk array, Disk controller, Disk drive, Disk formatting, Disk pack, DVD, Even parity, File Allocation Tube (FAT), , §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, , Floppy disk, Hard disk, Inter-block gap (IBG), Inter-record gap (IRG), Land, Latency, Magnetic disk, Magnetic tape, Magnetic tape drive, Mass storage devices, Master file, Odd parity, Off-line storage, On-line storage, Optical disk, Parallel representation, Parity bit, Pit, , (Continued on next slide), , Ref Page 144, , Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices, , Slide 97/98, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 335 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Key Words/Phrases, (Continued from previous slide..), , §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, , QIC Standard, Record, Redundant Array of Inexpensive Disks (RAID), Secondary storage, Sector, Seek time, Sequential access device, Storage hierarchy, Tape controller, Track, Transaction file, Winchester disk, WORM disk, Zip disk, , Ref Page 144, , Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices, , Slide 98/98, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 338 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , I/O Devices, § Provide means of communication between a computer, and outer world, § Also known as peripheral devices because they, surround the CPU and memory of a computer system, § Input devices are used to enter data from the outside, world into primary storage, § Output devices supply results of processing from, primary storage to users, , Ref Page 148, , Chapter 9: Input-Output Devices, , Slide 3/58, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 339 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Role of I/O Devices, , Input, data, from, external, world, , Input, Devices, , CPU, and, Memory, , Input data coded, in internal form, , Ref Page 148, , Output, Devices, , Results of, processing, in human, acceptable, form, , Processed data, in internal form, , Chapter 9: Input-Output Devices, , Slide 4/58, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 341 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Keyboard Devices, § Allow data entry into a computer system by pressing a, set of keys (labeled buttons) neatly mounted on a, keyboard connected to a computer system, § 101-keys QWERTY keyboard is most popular, , Ref Page 149, , Chapter 9: Input-Output Devices, , Slide 6/58, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 343 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Point-and-Draw Devices, § Used to rapidly point to and select a graphic icon or, menu item from multiple options displayed on the, Graphical User Interface (GUI) of a screen, § Used to create graphic elements on the screen such as, lines, curves, and freehand shapes, § Some commonly used point-and-draw devices are, mouse, track ball, joy stick, light pen, and touch screen, , Ref Page 149, , Chapter 9: Input-Output Devices, , Slide 8/58, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 347 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Electronic Pen, § Pen-based point-and-draw device, § Used to directly point with it on the screen to select, menu items or icons or directly draw graphics on the, screen, § Can write with it on a special pad for direct input of, written information to a system, § Pressure on tip of a side button is used to cause same, action as right-button-click of a mouse, , Ref Page 152, , Chapter 9: Input-Output Devices, , Slide 12/58, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 348 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Touch Screen, § Most simple, intuitive, and easiest to learn of all input, devices, § Enables users to choose from available options by simply, touching with their finger the desired icon or menu item, displayed on the screen, § Most preferred human-computer interface used in, information kiosks (unattended interactive information, systems such as automatic teller machine or ATM), , Ref Page 152, , Chapter 9: Input-Output Devices, , Slide 13/58, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 349 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Data Scanning Devices, § Input devices that enable direct data entry into a computer, system from source documents, § Eliminate the need to key in text data into the computer, § Due to reduced human effort in data entry, they improve, data accuracy and also increase the timeliness of the, information processed, § Demand high quality of input documents, § Some data scanning devices are also capable of recognizing, marks or characters, § Form design and ink specification usually becomes more, critical for accuracy, , Ref Page 153, , Chapter 9: Input-Output Devices, , Slide 14/58, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 350 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Image Scanner, § Input device that translates paper documents into an, electronic format for storage in a computer, § Electronic format of a scanned image is its bit map, representation, § Stored image can be altered or manipulated with an, image-processing software, , Ref Page 153, , Chapter 9: Input-Output Devices, , Slide 15/58, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 352 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Optical Character, Recognition (OCR) Device, § Scanner equipped with a character recognition software, (called OCR software) that converts the bit map images, of characters to equivalent ASCII codes, § Enables word processing of input text and also requires, less storage for storing the document as text rather than, an image, § OCR software is extremely complex because it is difficult, to make a computer recognize an unlimited number of, typefaces and fonts, § Two standard OCR fonts are OCR-A (American standard), and OCR-B (European standard), , Ref Page 154, , Chapter 9: Input-Output Devices, , Slide 17/58, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 353 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Optical Mark Reader (OMR), § Scanner capable of recognizing a pre-specified type of, mark by pencil or pen, § Very useful for grading tests with objective type, questions, or for any input data that is of a choice or, selection nature, § Technique used for recognition of marks involves focusing, a light on the page being scanned and detecting the, reflected light pattern from the marks, , Ref Page 155, , Chapter 9: Input-Output Devices, , Slide 18/58, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 354 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Sample Use of OMR, For each question, four options are given out of which only one is, correct. Choose the correct option and mark your choice against, the corresponding question number in the given answer sheet by, darkening the corresponding circle with a lead pencil., 1. The binary equivalent of decimal 4 is:, a) 101, b) 111, c) 001, d) 100, 2. The full form of CPU is:, a) Cursor Positioning Unit, b) Central Power Unit, c) Central Processing Unit, d) None of the above, 3. Which is the largest unit of storage among the following:, a) Terabyte, b) Kilobyte, c) Megabyte, d) Gigabyte, , Indicates direction in which the, sheet should be fed to the OMR, 1., a, , b, , c, , d, , a, , b, , c, , d, , a, , b, , c, , d, , 2., , 3., , (b) Pre-printed answer sheet, , (a) Question sheet, A sample use of OMR for grading tests with objective type questions, , Ref Page 155, , Chapter 9: Input-Output Devices, , Slide 19/58, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 355 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Bar-code Reader, § Scanner used for reading (decoding) bar-coded, data, § Bar codes represent alphanumeric data by a, combination of adjacent vertical lines (bars) by, varying their width and the spacing between them, § Scanner uses laser-beam to stroke across pattern, of bar code. Different patterns of bars reflect the, beam in different ways sensed by a light-sensitive, detector, § Universal Product Code (UPC) is the most widely, known bar coding system, , Ref Page 155, , Chapter 9: Input-Output Devices, , Slide 20/58, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 356 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , An Example of UPC Bar Code, Product category character, 0 – grocery products, 3 – drugs and health related, products, etc., , 0, , 21000, , Manufacturer/supplier, identification number, , Ref Page 156, , 67520, , Specific product code, number, , Chapter 9: Input-Output Devices, , Slide 21/58, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 357 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Magnetic-Ink Character Recognition (MICR), § MICR is used by banking industry for faster processing, of large volume of cheques, § Bank’s identification code (name, branch, etc.), account, number and cheque number are pre-printed (encoded), using characters from a special character set on all, cheques, § Special ink is used that contains magnetizable particles, of iron oxide, § MICR reader-sorter reads data on cheques and sorts, them for distribution to other banks or for further, processing, , Ref Page 156, , Chapter 9: Input-Output Devices, , Slide 22/58, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 359 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Digitizer, § Input device used for converting (digitizing) pictures,, maps and drawings into digital form for storage in, computers, § Commonly used in the area of Computer Aided, Design (CAD) by architects and engineers to design, cars, buildings medical devices, robots, mechanical, parts, etc., § Used in the area of Geographical Information System, (GIS) for digitizing maps available in paper form, , Ref Page 157, , Chapter 9: Input-Output Devices, , Slide 24/58, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 361 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Electronic-card Reader, § Electronic cards are small plastic cards having encoded, data appropriate for the application for which they are, used, § Electronic-card reader (normally connected to a, computer) is used to read data encoded on an, electronic card and transfer it to the computer for, further processing, § Used together as a means of direct data entry into a, computer system, § Used by banks for use in automatic teller machines, (ATMs) and by organizations for controlling access of, employees to physically secured areas, , Ref Page 158, , Chapter 9: Input-Output Devices, , Slide 26/58, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 362 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Speech Recognition Devices, § Input device that allows a person to input data to a, computer system by speaking to it, § Today’s speech recognition systems are limited to, accepting few words within a relatively small, domain and can be used to enter only limited kinds, and quantities of data, , Ref Page 158, , Chapter 9: Input-Output Devices, , Slide 27/58, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 363 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Types of Speech Recognition Systems, (Continued from previous slide..), , § Single word recognition systems can recognize only a, single spoken words, such as YES, NO, MOVE, STOP, at, a time. Speaker-independent systems are mostly of, this type, § Continuous speech recognition systems can recognize, spoken sentences, such as MOVE TO THE NEXT, BLOCK. Such systems are normally speakerdependent, , Ref Page 158, , Chapter 9: Input-Output Devices, , Slide 28/58, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 364 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Uses of Speech Recognition Systems, § For inputting data to a computer system by a person in, situations where his/her hands are busy, or his/her eyes, must be fixed on a measuring instrument or some other, object, § For data input by dictation of long text or passage for, later editing and review, § For authentication of a user by a computer system based, on voice input, § For limited use of computers by individuals with physical, disabilities, , Ref Page 159, , Chapter 9: Input-Output Devices, , Slide 29/58, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 365 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Vision-Input Systems, § Allow computer to accept input just by seeing an object., § Input data is normally an object’s shape and features in, the form of an image, § Mainly used today in factories for designing industrial, robots that are used for quality-control and assembly, processes, , Ref Page 159, , Chapter 9: Input-Output Devices, , Slide 30/58, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 367 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Types of Output, § Soft-copy output, § Not produced on a paper or some material that can be touched, and carried for being shown to others, § Temporary in nature and vanish after use, § Examples are output displayed on a terminal screen or spoken out, by a voice response system, § Hard-copy output, § Produced on a paper or some material that can be touched and, carried for being shown to others, § Permanent in nature and can be kept in paper files or can be, looked at a later time when the person is not using the computer, § Examples are output produced by printers or plotters on paper, , Ref Page 160, , Chapter 9: Input-Output Devices, , Slide 32/58, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 368 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Monitors, § Monitors are the most popular output devices used for, producing soft-copy output, § Display the output on a television like screen, § Monitor associated with a keyboard is called a video, display terminal (VDT). It is the most popular I/O, device, , Ref Page 160, , Chapter 9: Input-Output Devices, , Slide 33/58, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 370 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Types of Monitors, § Cathode-ray-tube (CRT) monitors look like a television, and are normally used with non-portable computer, systems, § Flat-panel monitors are thinner and lighter and are, commonly used with portable computer systems like, notebook computers. Now they are also used with nonportable desktop computer systems because they, occupy less table space., , Ref Page 160, , Chapter 9: Input-Output Devices, , Slide 35/58, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 372 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Dot-Matrix Printers, § Character printers that form characters and all kinds of, images as a pattern of dots, § Print many special characters, different sizes of print and, graphics such as charts and graphs, § Impact printers can be used for generating multiple copies, by using carbon paper or its equivalent, § Slow, with speeds usually ranging between 30 to 600, characters per second, § Cheap in both initial cost and cost of operation, , Ref Page 161, , Chapter 9: Input-Output Devices, , Slide 37/58, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 375 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Inkjet Printers, § Character printers that form characters and all kinds of, images by spraying small drops of ink on to the paper, § Print head contains up to 64 tiny nozzles that can be, selectively heated up in a few micro seconds by an, integrated circuit register, § To print a character, the printer selectively heats the, appropriate set of nozzles as the print head moves, horizontally, § Can print many special characters, different sizes of print,, and graphics such as charts and graphs, , (Continued on next slide), , Ref Page 161, , Chapter 9: Input-Output Devices, , Slide 40/58, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 376 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Inkjet Printers, (Continued from previous slide..), , § Non-impact printers. Hence, they cannot produce, multiple copies of a document in a single printing, § Can be both monochrome and color, § Slower than dot-matrix printers with speeds usually, ranging between 40 to 300 characters per second, § More expensive than a dot-matrix printer, , Ref Page 162, , Chapter 9: Input-Output Devices, , Slide 41/58, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 378 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Drum Printers, § Line printers that print one line at a time, § Have a solid cylindrical drum with characters embossed, on its surface in the form of circular bands, § Set of hammers mounted in front of the drum in such a, manner that an inked ribbon and paper can be placed, between the hammers and the drum, § Can only print a pre-defined set of characters in a predefined style that is embossed on the drum, § Impact printers and usually monochrome, § Typical speeds are in the range of 300 to 2000 lines per, minute, , Ref Page 162, , Chapter 9: Input-Output Devices, , Slide 43/58, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 379 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Printing Mechanism of a Drum Printer, Hammers (one for each band), Paper, Ribbon, , Solid, cylindrical, drum with, embossed, characters, , WW W WWWWWWWWWWW, V V V V V V V V V V VV V V, U U U U U U U U U U U U U U, T T T T T T T T T T T T T T, S S S S S S S S S S S S S S, R R R R R R R R R R R R R R, QQ Q Q Q Q Q Q Q Q Q Q Q Q, P P P P P P P P P P P P P P, O O O O O O O O O O O O O O, N N N N N N N N N N NN N N, , Total number of bands is equal to the maximum, number of characters (print positions) on a line, , Ref Page 163, , Chapter 9: Input-Output Devices, , Slide 44/58, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 380 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Chain/Band Printers, § Line printers that print one line at a time, § Consist of a metallic chain/band on which all, characters of the character set supported by the, printer are embossed, § Also have a set of hammers mounted in front of, the chain/band in such a manner that an inked, ribbon and paper can be placed between the, hammers and the chain/band, , Ref Page 163, , Chapter 9: Input-Output Devices, , Slide 45/58, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 381 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Chain/Band Printers, § Can only print pre-defined sets of characters that, are embossed on the chain/band used with the, printer, § Cannot print any shape of characters, different, sizes of print, and graphics such as charts and, graphs, § Are impact printers and can be used for generating, multiple copies by using carbon paper or its, equivalent, § Are usually monochrome, § Typical speeds are in the range of 400 to 3000, lines per minute, , Ref Page 164, , Chapter 9: Input-Output Devices, , Slide 46/58, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 382 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Laser Printers, §, , Page printers that print one page at a time, , §, , Consist of a laser beam source, a multi-sided mirror, a, photoconductive drum and toner (tiny particles of oppositely, charged ink), , §, , To print a page, the laser beam is focused on the electro, statically charged drum by the spinning multi-sided mirror, , §, , Toner sticks to the drum in the places the laser beam has, charged the drum’s surface., , §, , Toner is then permanently fused on the paper with heat and, pressure to generate the printer output, , §, , Laser printers produce very high quality output having, resolutions in the range of 600 to 1200 dpi, , (Continued on next slide), , Ref Page 164, , Chapter 9: Input-Output Devices, , Slide 47/58, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 383 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Laser Printers, (Continued from previous slide..), , § Can print many special characters, different sizes of, print, and graphics such as charts and graphs, § Are non-impact printers, § Most laser printers are monochrome, but color laser, printers are also available, § Low speed laser printers can print 4 to 12 pages per, minute. Very high-speed laser printers can print 500, to 1000 pages per minute, § More expensive than other printers, , Ref Page 165, , Chapter 9: Input-Output Devices, , Slide 48/58, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 385 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Plotters, § Plotters are an ideal output device for architects,, engineers, city planners, and others who need to, routinely generate high-precision, hard-copy graphic, output of widely varying sizes, § Two commonly used types of plotters are:, – Drum plotter, in which the paper on which the, design has to be made is placed over a drum that, can rotate in both clockwise and anti-clockwise, directions, – Flatbed plotter, in which the paper on which the, design has to be made is spread and fixed over a, rectangular flatbed table, , Ref Page 165, , Chapter 9: Input-Output Devices, , Slide 50/58, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 388 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Screen Image Projector, § An output device that can be directly plugged to a, computer system for projecting information from a, computer on to a large screen, § Useful for making presentations to a group of people, with direct use of a computer, § Full-fledged multimedia presentation with audio,, video, image, and animation can be prepared and, made using this facility, , Ref Page 166, , Chapter 9: Input-Output Devices, , Slide 53/58, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 389 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Voice Response Systems, § Voice response system enables a computer to talk to, a user, § Has an audio-response device that produces audio, output, § Such systems are of two types:, § Voice reproduction systems, § Speech synthesizers, , (Continued on next slide), , Ref Page 167, , Chapter 9: Input-Output Devices, , Slide 54/58, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 390 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Voice Reproduction Systems, (Continued from previous slide..), , § Produce audio output by selecting an appropriate, audio output from a set of pre-recorded audio, responses, § Applications include audio help for guiding how, to operate a system, automatic answering, machines, video games, etc., , Ref Page 167, , Chapter 9: Input-Output Devices, , Slide 55/58, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 391 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Speech Synthesizers, § Converts text information into spoken sentences, § Used for applications such as:, § Reading out text information to blind persons, § Allowing those persons who cannot speak to, communicate effectively, § Translating an entered text into spoken words in, a selected language, , Ref Page 168, , Chapter 9: Input-Output Devices, , Slide 56/58, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 392 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Key Words/Phrases, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, , Bard code reader, Cathode Ray Tube (CRT), Chain/Band printer, Data scanning device, Digitizer, Digitizing tablet, Dot-Matrix printer, Drum plotter, Drum printer, Electronic card reader, Electronic Pen, Flatbed plotter, Flatbed Scanner, Graphical User Interface, Hand-held scanner, Hard-copy output, Image Scanner, , §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, , Information Kiosk, Inkjet printer, Input/Output device, Joystick, Keyboard device, Laser printer, Magnetic-Ink Character Recognition (MICR), Monitor, Mouse, Optical Character Recognition (OCR), Optical Mark Reader (OMR), Peripheral device, Phonemes, Plotter, Point-and-draw device, Printer, QWERTY keyboard, Screen Image Projector, , (Continued on next slide), , Ref Page 168, , Chapter 9: Input-Output Devices, , Slide 57/58, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 393 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Key Words/Phrases, (Continued from previous slide..), , §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, , Soft-copy output, Speech synthesizer, Stylus, Touch Screen, Trackball, Universal Product Code (UPC), Video Display Terminal (VDT), Vision-input system, Voice recognition device, Voice reproduction system, Voice response system, , Ref Page 168, , Chapter 9: Input-Output Devices, , Slide 58/58, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 395 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Learning Objectives, In this chapter you will learn about:, § Term “Software” and its relationship with “Hardware”, § Various types of software and their examples, § Relationship among hardware, system software,, application software, and users of a computer system, § Different ways of acquiring software, § Various steps involved in software development, § Firmware, § Middleware, , Ref Page 172, , Chapter 10: Computer Software, , Slide 2/17, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 396 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Software, § Hardware refers to the physical devices of a, computer system., § Software refers to a collection of programs, § Program is a sequence of instructions written in a, language that can be understood by a computer, § Software package is a group of programs that solve, a specific problem or perform a specific type of job, , Ref Page 172, , Chapter 10: Computer Software, , Slide 3/17, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 397 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Relationship Between Hardware and, Software, § Both hardware and software are necessary for a, computer to do useful job. They are complementary, to each other, § Same hardware can be loaded with different software, to make a computer system perform different types, of jobs, § Except for upgrades, hardware is normally a onetime expense, whereas software is a continuing, expense, § Upgrades refer to renewing or changing components, like increasing the main memory, or hard disk, capacities, or adding speakers, modems, etc., , Ref Page 173, , Chapter 10: Computer Software, , Slide 4/17, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 398 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Types of Software, Most software can be divided into two major categories:, § System software are designed to control the, operation and extend the processing capability of a, computer system, § Application software are designed to solve a, specific problem or to do a specific task, , Ref Page 173, , Chapter 10: Computer Software, , Slide 5/17, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 399 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , System Software, § Make the operation of a computer system more effective, and efficient, § Help hardware components work together and provide, support for the development and execution of application, software, § Programs included in a system software package are, called system programs and programmers who, prepare them are called system programmers, § Examples of system software are operating systems,, programming language translators, utility programs, and, communications software, , Ref Page 173, , Chapter 10: Computer Software, , Slide 6/17, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 400 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Application Software, § Solve a specific problem or do a specific task, § Programs included in an application software, package are called application programs and the, programmers who prepare them are called, application programmers, § Examples of application software are word, processing, inventory management, preparation of, tax returns, banking, etc., , Ref Page 174, , Chapter 10: Computer Software, , Slide 7/17, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 401 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Logical System Architecture, , HARDWARE, (Physical devices/components, of the computer system), SYSTEM SOFTWARE, , (Software that constitute the operating and, programming environment of the computer system), , APPLICATION SOFTWARE, (Software that do a specific task or solve a specific problem), , USERS, (Normally interact with the system via the user, interface provided by the application software), , Relationship among hardware, system software, application software, and users of a, computer system., , Ref Page 175, , Chapter 10: Computer Software, , Slide 8/17, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 403 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Advantages and Limitations of, Buying Pre-written Software, § Usually costs less, § Planned activity can be stared almost immediately, § Often, operating efficiency and the capability to meet, specific needs of user more effectively in not as good, for pre-written software packages as for in-house, developed software packages, , Ref Page 176, , Chapter 10: Computer Software, , Slide 10/17, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 404 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Advantages & Limitations of Ordering, Customized Software, § User need not maintain its own software development team,, which is an expensive affair, § User needs to always depend on the vendor for carrying out, the changes and the vendor may separately charge for, every request for change, , Ref Page 177, , Chapter 10: Computer Software, , Slide 11/17, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 405 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Advantages & Limitations of Developing, Customized Software, § Easier to carry out changes in the software, if it is, developed in-house, § Developing software in-house means a major, commitment of time, money, and resources, § In-house software development team needs to be, maintained and managed, , Ref Page 177, , Chapter 10: Computer Software, , Slide 12/17, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 406 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Advantage & Limitations of Downloading, Public-domain Software, §, , Available for free or as shareware, and are usually accompanied, with source code, , §, , Usually community-supported as author does not support users, directly, , §, , Can be downloaded and used immediately, , §, , They may not be properly tested before release, , §, , Open Source Software (OSS) are becoming popular due to:, § Allows any user to download, view, modify, and redistribute, § User can fix bugs or change software to suit needs, § Copyright is protected for both original and subsequent, authors, , §, , Not all open source software are free and vise-verse, , Ref Page 178, , Chapter 10: Computer Software, , Slide 13/17, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 407 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Software Development Steps, Developing a software and putting it to use is a complex, process and involves following steps:, §, , Analyzing the problem at hand and planning the, program(s) to solve the problem, , §, , Coding the program(s), , §, , Testing, debugging, and documenting the program(s), , §, , Implementing the program(s), , §, , Evaluating and maintaining the program(s), , Ref Page 178, , Chapter 10: Computer Software, , Slide 14/17, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 409 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Middleware, § Basic idea is to have a separate software layer to:, § Act as “glue” between client and server parts of, application, § Provide programming abstraction, § Mask heterogeneity of underlying network, hardware,, and OS, § Encourages three-tier software architecture against twotier popularized by Server-Client architecture, , Ref Page 179, , Chapter 10: Computer Software, , Slide 16/17, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 410 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Key Words/Phrases, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, , Application programmers, Application programs, Application software, Computer program, Customized software, Database, Education software, End-to-end solution, Entertainment software, Firmware, Graphics software, Hardware, Middleware, Open Source Software, Personal assistance software, , Ref Page 181, , §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, , Pre-written software, Public-domain software, Shareware, Software, Software package, Spreadsheet, System programmers, System programs, System software, Turnkey solution, User-supported, software, Utilities, Word-processing, , Chapter 10: Computer Software, , Slide 17/17, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 412 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Learning Objectives, In this chapter you will learn about:, § Programs must be planned before they are written, § Algorithm, § Flowchart, § Pseudocode, § Plan the logic of a computer program, § Commonly used tools for program planning and, their use, , Ref Page 183, , Chapter 11: Planning the Computer Program, , Slide 2/44, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 413 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Purpose of Program Planning, § To write a correct program, a programmer must write, each and every instruction in the correct sequence, § Logic (instruction sequence) of a program can be very, complex, § Hence, programs must be planned before they are, written to ensure program instructions are:, § Appropriate for the problem, § In the correct sequence, , Ref Page 183, , Chapter 11: Planning the Computer Program, , Slide 3/44, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 414 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Algorithm, §, , Refers to the logic of a program and a step-by-step, description of how to arrive at the solution of a given, problem, , §, , In order to qualify as an algorithm, a sequence of, instructions must have following characteristics:, § Each and every instruction should be precise and, unambiguous, § Each instruction should be such that it can be performed in, a finite time, § One or more instructions should not be repeated infinitely., This ensures that the algorithm will ultimately terminate, § After performing the instructions, that is after the algorithm, terminates, the desired results must be obtained, , Ref Page 184, , Chapter 11: Planning the Computer Program, , Slide 4/44, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 415 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Sample Algorithm (Example 1), There are 50 students in a class who appeared in their, final examination. Their mark sheets have been given to, you., The division column of the mark sheet contains the, division (FIRST, SECOND, THIRD or FAIL) obtained by the, student., Write an algorithm to calculate and print the total number, of students who passed in FIRST division., , Ref Page 184, , Chapter 11: Planning the Computer Program, , Slide 5/44, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 416 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Sample Algorithm (Example 1), (contd…), , Step 1: Initialize Total_First_Division and, Total_Marksheets_Checked to zero., Step 2: Take the mark sheet of the next student., Step 3: Check the division column of the mark sheet to see if it is, FIRST, if no, go to Step 5., Step 4: Add 1 to Total_First_Division., Step 5: Add 1 to Total_Marksheets_Checked., Step 6: Is Total_Marksheets_Checked = 50, if no, go to Step 2., Step 7: Print Total_First_Division., Step 8: Stop., , Ref Page 184, , Chapter 11: Planning the Computer Program, , Slide 6/44, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 417 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Sample Algorithm (Example 2), There are 100 employees in an organization. The organization, wants to distribute annual bonus to the employees based on their, performance. The performance of the employees is recorded in, their annual appraisal forms., Every employee’s appraisal form contains his/her basic salary and, the grade for his/her performance during the year. The grade is of, three categories – ‘A’ for outstanding performance, ‘B’ for good, performance, and ‘C’ for average performance., It has been decided that the bonus of an employee will be 100% of, the basic salary for outstanding performance, 70% of the basic, salary for good performance, 40% of the basic salary for average, performance, and zero for all other cases., Write an algorithm to calculate and print the total bonus amount to, be distributed by the organization., , Ref Page 185, , Chapter 11: Planning the Computer Program, , Slide 7/44, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 418 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Sample Algorithm (Example 2), Step 1:, , Initialize Total_Bonus and Total_Employees_Checked to zero., , Step 2:, , Initialize Bonus and Basic_Salary to zero., , Step 3:, , Take the appraisal form of the next employee., , Step 4:, , Read the employee’s Basic_Salary and Grade., , Step 5:, , If Grade = A, then Bonus = Basic_Salary. Go to Step 8., , Step 6:, , If Grade = B, then Bonus = Basic_Salary x 0.7. Go to Step 8., , Step 7:, , If Grade = C, then Bonus = Basic_Salary x 0.4., , Step 8:, , Add Bonus to Total_Bonus., , Step 9:, , Add 1 to Total_Employees_Checked., , (contd…), , Step 10: If Total_Employees_Checked < 100, then go to Step 2., Step 11: Print Total_Bonus., Step 12: Stop., , Ref Page 185, , Chapter 11: Planning the Computer Program, , Slide 8/44, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 419 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Representation of Algorithms, § As programs, § As flowcharts, § As pseudocodes, When an algorithm is represented in the form of a, programming language, it becomes a program, Thus, any program is an algorithm, although the, reverse is not true, , Ref Page 185, , Chapter 11: Planning the Computer Program, , Slide 9/44, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 420 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Flowchart, § Flowchart is a pictorial representation of an algorithm, § Uses symbols (boxes of different shapes) that have, standardized meanings to denote different types of, instructions, § Actual instructions are written within the boxes, § Boxes are connected by solid lines having arrow marks to, indicate the exact sequence in which the instructions are, to be executed, § Process of drawing a flowchart for an algorithm is called, flowcharting, , Ref Page 186, , Chapter 11: Planning the Computer Program, , Slide 10/44, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 422 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Examples of Decision Symbol, , Is I = 10?, , No, , A<B, , Compare, A&B, , Yes, , A=B, , (a) A two-way branch decision., , Ref Page 188, , A>B, , (b) A three-way branch decision., , Chapter 11: Planning the Computer Program, , Slide 12/44, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 424 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Sample Flowchart (Example 3), A student appears in an examination, which consists of, total 10 subjects, each subject having maximum marks, of 100., The roll number of the student, his/her name, and the, marks obtained by him/her in various subjects are, supplied as input data., Such a collection of related data items, which is treated, as a unit is known as a record., Draw a flowchart for the algorithm to calculate the, percentage marks obtained by the student in this, examination and then to print it along with his/her roll, number and name., , Ref Page 188, , Chapter 11: Planning the Computer Program, , Slide 14/44, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 426 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Sample Flowchart (Example 4), 50 students of a class appear in the examination of, Example 3., Draw a flowchart for the algorithm to calculate and print, the percentage marks obtained by each student along, with his/her roll number and name., , Ref Page 189, , Chapter 11: Planning the Computer Program, , Slide 16/44, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 427 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Sample Flowchart (Example 4), (contd…), , Start, Read input data, , Add marks of all, subjects giving Total, , Flowchart for the solution, of Example 4 with an, infinite (endless) process, loop., , Percentage = Total / 10, , Write output data, , Ref Page 190, , Chapter 11: Planning the Computer Program, , Slide 17/44, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 428 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Sample Flowchart (Example 4), Start, , (contd…), , Count = 0, Read input data, Add marks of all subjects giving Total, Percentage = Total/10, Write output data, Add 1 to Count, No, , Flowchart for the solution, of Example 4., , Is Count = 50?, Yes, Stop, , Ref Page 191, , Chapter 11: Planning the Computer Program, , Slide 18/44, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 429 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Sample Flowchart (Example 4), Start, , (contd…), , Read input data, , Is Rollno = 0000000?, , Yes, , No, Add marks of all subjects, giving Total, Percentage = Total / 10, , Stop, , Generalized flowchart, for the solution of, Example 4 using the, concept of trailer, record. Here the, process loop is, terminated by detecting, a special non-data, record., , Write output data, , Ref Page 191, , Chapter 11: Planning the Computer Program, , Slide 19/44, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 430 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Sample Flowchart (Example 5), For the examination of Example 3, we want to make a, list of only those students who have passed (obtained, 30% or more marks) in the examination., In the end, we also want to print out the total number of, students who have passed., Assuming that the input data of all the students is, terminated by a trailer record, which has sentinel value, of 9999999 for Rollno, draw a flowchart for the, algorithm to do this., , Ref Page 192, , Chapter 11: Planning the Computer Program, , Slide 20/44, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 431 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Sample Flowchart (Example 5), Start, , (contd…), , Count = 0, Read input data, Is Rollno = 9999999?, , Yes, Write Count, , No, Add marks of all subjects giving Total, , Stop, , Percentage = Total/10, Is Percentage = > 30?, , No, , Yes, Write output data, Add 1 to Count, , Ref Page 193, , Chapter 11: Planning the Computer Program, , Slide 21/44, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 432 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Sample Flowchart (Example 6), Suppose the input data of each student for the examination of, Example 3 also contains information regarding the sex of the, candidate in the field named Sexcode having values M (for, male) or F (for female)., We want to make a list of only those female students who have, passed in second division (obtained 45% or more but less than, 60% marks)., In the end, we also want to print out the total number of such, students., Assuming that the input data of all the students is terminated, by a trailer record, which has a sentinel value of Z for Sexcode,, draw a flowchart for the algorithm to do this., , Ref Page 193, , Chapter 11: Planning the Computer Program, , Slide 22/44, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 434 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Sample Flowchart (Example 4), (contd…), , 3, , 1, , No, , Is Percentage = > 45?, Yes, , 1, , No, , 2, , Is Percentage < 60?, Yes, , Write Count, , Write output data, Stop, Add 1 to Count, 1, , Ref Page 195, , Chapter 11: Planning the Computer Program, , Slide 24/44, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 435 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Levels of Flowchart, § Flowchart that outlines the main segments of a program, or that shows less details is a macro flowchart, § Flowchart with more details is a micro flowchart, or, detailed flowchart, § There are no set standards on the amount of details that, should be provided in a flowchart, , Ref Page 196, , Chapter 11: Planning the Computer Program, , Slide 25/44, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 436 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Example of Micro Flowchart, , Part of a macro, flowchart, , 1, I=1, Total = 0, , Add marks of all, subjects giving Total, , Total = Total + Marks (I), I=I+1, No, , Is I > 10?, 1, , Ref Page 196, , A micro, Flowchart, , Yes, , Chapter 11: Planning the Computer Program, , Slide 26/44, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 437 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Flowcharting Rules, § First chart the main line of logic, then incorporate detail, § Maintain a consistent level of detail for a given flowchart, § Do not chart every detail of the program. A reader who is, interested in greater details can refer to the program itself, § Words in the flowchart symbols should be common, statements and easy to understand, , Ref Page 196, , Chapter 11: Planning the Computer Program, , Slide 27/44, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 438 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Flowcharting Rules, (contd…), , § Be consistent in using names and variables in the, flowchart, § Go from left to right and top to bottom in, constructing flowcharts, § Keep the flowchart as simple as possible. Crossing of, flow lines should be avoided as far as practicable, § If a new flowcharting page is needed, it is, recommended that the flowchart be broken at an, input or output point., § Properly labeled connectors should be used to link, the portions of the flowchart on different pages, , Ref Page 197, , Chapter 11: Planning the Computer Program, , Slide 28/44, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 440 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Limitations of Flowchart, § Flowcharts are very time consuming and laborious to, draw (especially for large complex programs), § Redrawing a flowchart for incorporating changes/, modifications is a tedious task, § There are no standards determining the amount of detail, that should be included in a flowchart, , Ref Page 198, , Chapter 11: Planning the Computer Program, , Slide 30/44, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 441 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Pseudocode, § A program planning tool where program logic is written in, an ordinary natural language using a structure that, resembles computer instructions, § “ Pseudo” means imitation or false and “ Code” refers to, the instructions written in a programming language., Hence, pseudocode is an imitation of actual computer, instructions, § Because it emphasizes the design of the program,, pseudocode is also called Program Design Language, (PDL), , Ref Page 198, , Chapter 11: Planning the Computer Program, , Slide 31/44, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 442 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Basic Logic (Control) Structures, Any program logic can be expressed by using only, following three simple logic structures:, 1. Sequence logic,, 2. Selection logic, and, 3. Iteration (or looping) logic, Programs structured by using only these three logic, structures are called structured programs, and the, technique of writing such programs is known as, structured programming, , Ref Page 199, , Chapter 11: Planning the Computer Program, , Slide 32/44, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 444 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Selection Logic, •, , Also known as decision logic, it is used for making, decisions, , •, , Three, 1., 2., 3., , Ref Page 200, , popularly used selection logic structures are, IF…THEN…ELSE, IF…THEN, CASE, , Chapter 11: Planning the Computer Program, , Slide 34/44, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 447 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Selection Logic (CASE Structure), Type 1, No, Type 2, , Yes, , Yes, , Process 1, , Process 2, , No, , Type n, , Yes, , No, , CASE Type, Case Type 1:, , Process 1, , Case Type 2:, , Process 2, , Case Type n:, , Process n, , Process n, ENDCASE, , (a) Flowchart, (b) Pseudocode, , Ref Page 201, , Chapter 11: Planning the Computer Program, , Slide 37/44, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 448 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Iteration (or Looping) Logic, §, , Used to produce loops in program logic when one or, more instructions may be executed several times, depending on some conditions, , §, , Two popularly used iteration logic structures are, 1. DO…WHILE, 2. REPEAT…UNTIL, , Ref Page 201, , Chapter 11: Planning the Computer Program, , Slide 38/44, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 452 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Advantages of Pseudocode, § Converting a pseudocode to a programming language, is much more easier than converting a flowchart to a, programming language, § As compared to a flowchart, it is easier to modify the, pseudocode of a program logic when program, modifications are necessary, § Writing of pseudocode involves much less time and, effort than drawing an equivalent flowchart as it has, only a few rules to follow, , Ref Page 204, , Chapter 11: Planning the Computer Program, , Slide 42/44, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 453 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Limitations of Pseudocode, § In case of pseudocode, a graphic representation of, program logic is not available, § There are no standard rules to follow in using, pseudocode, § Different programmers use their own style of writing, pseudocode and hence communication problem, occurs due to lack of standardization, § For a beginner, it is more difficult to follow the logic, of or write pseudocode, as compared to flowcharting, , Ref Page 204, , Chapter 11: Planning the Computer Program, , Slide 43/44, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 456 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Learning Objectives, In this chapter you will learn about:, § Computer languages or programming languages, § Three broad categories of programming languages –, machine, assembly, and high-level languages, § Commonly used programming language tools such as, assembler, compiler, linker, and interpreter, § Concepts of object-oriented programming languages, § Some popular programming languages such as, FORTRAN, COBOL, BASIC, Pascal, C, C++, C#, Java,, RPG, LISP and SNOBOL, § Related concepts such as Subprogram, Characteristics of, a good programming language, and factors to consider, while selecting a language for coding an application, , Ref Page 208, , Chapter 12: Computer Languages, , Slide 2/59, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 459 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , A Typical Machine Language, Instruction Format, OPCODE, (operation code), , OPERAND, (Address/Location), , § OPCODE tells the computer which operation to perform, from the instruction set of the computer, § OPERAND tells the address of the data on which the, operation is to be performed, , Ref Page 210, , Chapter 12: Computer Languages, , Slide 5/59, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 462 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Assembly/Symbolic Language, Programming language that overcomes the limitations of machine, language programming by:, §, , Using alphanumeric mnemonic codes instead of numeric codes for, the instructions in the instruction set, e.g. using ADD instead of 1110 (binary) or 14 (decimal) for, instruction to add, , §, , Allowing storage locations to be represented in form of alphanumeric, addresses instead of numeric addresses, e.g. representing memory locations 1000, 1001, and 1002 as FRST,, SCND, and ANSR respectively, , §, , Providing pseudo-instructions that are used for instructing the, system how we want the program to be assembled inside the, computer’s memory, e.g. START PROGRAM AT 0000; SET ASIDE AN ADRESS FOR FRST, , Ref Page 211, , Chapter 12: Computer Languages, , Slide 8/59, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 463 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Assembler, § Software that translates as assembly language, program into an equivalent machine language program, of a computer, Assembly, language, program, , (Source Program), , Ref Page 212, , Input, , Output, Assembler, , One-to-one correspondence, , Chapter 12: Computer Languages, , Machine, language, program, , (Object Program), , Slide 9/59, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 464 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , An Example of Assembly, Language Program, , Mnemonic, , Opcode, , HLT, CLA, ADD, SUB, STA, , 00, 10, 14, 15, 30, , Meaning, Halt, used at the end of program to stop, Clear and add into A register, Add to the contents of A register, Subtract from the contents of A register, Store A register, , A subset of the set of instructions supported by a computer, , Ref Page 213, , Chapter 12: Computer Languages, , Slide 10/59, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 467 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , An Example of Assembly, Language Program, Memory, location, , Contents, Opcode, , Address, , 0000, 0001, , 10, 14, , 1000, 1001, , 0002, 0003, 1000, 1001, 1002, , 30, 00, , 1002, , Comments, , Clear and add the number stored at FRST to A register, Add the number stored at SCND to the contents of A, register, Store the contents of A register into ANSR, Halt, , Reserved for FRST, Reserved for SCND, Reserved for ANSR, , Equivalent machine language program for the assembly language program, , Ref Page 214, , Chapter 12: Computer Languages, , Slide 13/59, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 468 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Advantages of Assembly Language, Over Machine Language, § Easier to understand and use, § Easier to locate and correct errors, § Easier to modify, § No worry about addresses, § Easily relocatable, § Efficiency of machine language, , Ref Page 214, , Chapter 12: Computer Languages, , Slide 14/59, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 471 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Assembly Languages with, Macro Instructions, , § Any assembly language instruction that gets translated, into several machine language instructions is called a, macro instruction, § Several assembly languages support such macro, instructions to speed up the coding process, § Assemblers of such assembly languages are designed to, produce multiple machine language instructions for each, macro instruction of the assembly language, , Ref Page 215, , Chapter 12: Computer Languages, , Slide 17/59, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 472 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , High-Level Languages, § Machine independent, § Do not require programmers to know anything about the, internal structure of computer on which high-level, language programs will be executed, § Deal with high-level coding, enabling the programmers, to write instructions using English words and familiar, mathematical symbols and expressions, , Ref Page 216, , Chapter 12: Computer Languages, , Slide 18/59, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 476 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Compiler, (Continued from previous slide..), , Compiler for, language L1, on computer A, , Machine code for, P1 that will run, on computer A, , Program P1 in highlevel language L1, , Executed on, computer A, , Same results, obtained, , Compiler for, language L1, on computer B, , Machine code for, P1 that will run on, computer B, , Executed on, computer B, , Illustrating the machine independence characteristic of a, high-level language. Separate compilers are required for the, same language on different computers, , Ref Page 218, , Chapter 12: Computer Languages, , Slide 22/59, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 477 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Syntax Errors, In addition to doing translation job, compilers also, automatically detect and indicate syntax errors, Syntax errors are typically of following types:, § Illegal characters, § Illegal combination of characters, § Improper sequencing of instructions in a program, § Use of undefined variable names, Note : A compiler cannot detect logic errors in a program, , Ref Page 219, , Chapter 12: Computer Languages, , Slide 23/59, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 478 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , The Process of Removing Syntax Errors, From A Source Program, START, Edit, source program, Source program, Compile, source program, Syntax, errors, detected?, , No, , Generate, object program, Object program, , Yes, Generate list of coded, error messages, , Ref Page 219, , STOP, , Chapter 12: Computer Languages, , Slide 24/59, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 479 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Linker, § For a large software, storing all the lines of program, code in a single source file will be:, – Difficult to work with, – Difficult to deploy multiple programmers to, concurrently work towards its development, – Any change in the source program would require the, entire source program to be recompiled, § Hence, a modular approach is generally adapted to, develop large software where the software consists of, multiple source program files, § No need to write programs for some modules as it might, be available in library offering the same functionality, (Continued on next slide), , Ref Page 219, , Chapter 12: Computer Languages, , Slide 25/59, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 480 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Linker, (Continued from previous slide..), , § Each source program file can be independently, modified and compiled to create a corresponding, object program file, § Linker program (software) is used to properly, combine all the object program files (modules), § Creates the final executable program (load module), , Ref Page 220, , Chapter 12: Computer Languages, , Slide 26/59, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 481 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Interpreter, § Interpreter is a high-level language translator, § Takes one statement of a high-level language, program, translates it into machine language, instructions, § Immediately executes the resulting machine language, instructions, § Compiler simply translates the entire source program, into an object program and is not involved in its, execution, , Ref Page 220, , Chapter 12: Computer Languages, , Slide 27/59, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 483 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Intermediate Language Compiler &, Interpreter, § New type of compiler and interpreter combines the, speed, ease, and control of both compiler and, interpreter, § Compiler first compiles the source program to an, intermediate object program, § Intermediate object program is not a machine, language code but written in an intermediate, language that is virtually machine independent, § Interpreter takes intermediate object program,, converts it into machine language program and, executes it, , Ref Page 221, , Chapter 12: Computer Languages, , Slide 29/59, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 484 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Benefits of Intermediate Language, Compiler & Interpreter, §, , Intermediate object program is in compiled form and thus is, not original source code, so safer and easier to share, , §, , Intermediate object program is based on a standard, Intermediate Definition Language (IDL), , §, , Interpreter can be written for any computer architecture and, operating system providing virtual machine environment to the, executing program, , §, , Newer Interpreter compiles intermediate program, in memory,, into final host machine language program and executes it, , §, , This technique is called Just-In-Time (JIT) Compilation, , Ref Page 221, , Chapter 12: Computer Languages, , Slide 30/59, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 487 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Object-Oriented Programming Languages, § Programming languages are used for simulating realworld problems on computers, § Much of the real world is made up of objects, § Essence of OOP is to solve a problem by:, § Identifying the real-world objects of the problem, § Identifying processing required of them, § Creating simulations of objects, processes, and their, communications, , Ref Page 223, , Chapter 12: Computer Languages, , Slide 33/59, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 488 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , FORTRAN, § Stands for FORmula TRANslation, § Originally developed by John Backus and his team at, IBM followed by several revisions, § Standardized by ANSI as FORTRAN-77 and FORTRAN-90, § Designed for solving scientific & engineering problems, § Oriented towards solving problems of a mathematical, nature, § Popular language amongst scientists and engineers, , Ref Page 223, , Chapter 12: Computer Languages, , Slide 34/59, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 489 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , A Sample FORTRAN Program, C, C, , FORTRAN PROGRAM TO COMPUTE, THE SUM OF 10 NUMBERS, SUM = 0, DO 50 I = 1, 10, READ (5, 10) N, SUM = SUM + N, 50 CONTINUE, WRITE (6, 20) SUM, 10 FORMAT (F6.2), 20 FORMAT (1X, ’THE SUM OF GIVEN NUMBERS = ’,, F10.2), STOP, END, , Ref Page 224, , Chapter 12: Computer Languages, , Slide 35/59, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 490 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , COBOL, § Stands for COmmon Business Oriented Language, § Originally developed started under Grace Hopper, followed by COnference on DAta SYstems Languages, (CODASYL), § Standardized by ANSI as COBOL-74, COBOL-85, and, COBOL-2002, § Designed for programming business data processing, applications, § Designed to have the appearance and structure of a, business report written in English, hence often referred, to as a self-documenting language, , Ref Page 224, , Chapter 12: Computer Languages, , Slide 36/59, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 495 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , BASIC, § Stands for Beginners All-purpose Symbolic Instruction, Code, § Developed by Professor John Kemeny and Thomas Kurtz, at Darmouth College in the United States, § Standardized by ANSI as BASIC-78, § Designed to be an interactive language and to use an, interpreter instead of a compiler, § Simple to implement, learn and use language. Hence, it, is a widely used language on personal computers, § Flexible and reasonably powerful language and can be, used for both business and scientific applications, , Ref Page 227, , Chapter 12: Computer Languages, , Slide 41/59, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 496 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , A Sample BASIC Program, 5, 6, 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, , REM PROGRAM TO COMPUTE, REM THE SUM OF 10 NUMBERS, LET S = 0, FOR I = 1 TO 10, READ N, LET S = S + N, NEXT I, PRINT “THE SUM OF GIVEN NUMBERS = ”; S, DATA 4, 20, 15, 32, 48, DATA 12, 3, 9, 14, 44, END;, , Ref Page 227, , Chapter 12: Computer Languages, , Slide 42/59, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 497 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Pascal, §, , Named after the famous seventeenth-century French, mathematician Blaise Pascal, , §, , Developed by Professor Nicklaus Wirth of Federal Institute of, Technology in Zurich, , §, , Encourages programmers to write well-structured, modular, programs, instills good program practices, , §, , Recognized as an educational language and is used to teach, programming to beginners, , §, , Suitable for both scientific & business applications, , §, , Has features to manipulate numbers, vectors, matrices,, strings, sets, records, files, and lists, , Ref Page 228, , Chapter 12: Computer Languages, , Slide 43/59, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 498 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , A Sample Pascal Program, PROGRAM SUMNUMS (INPUT, OUTPUT);, (* PROGRAM TO COMPUTE THE SUM OF 10 NUMBERS *), (* DECLARATION OF VARIABLES *), VAR SUM, N : REAL;, VAR I : INTEGER;, (* MAIN PROGRAM LOGIC STARTS HERE *), BEGIN, SUM := 0;, FOR I := 1 TO 10 DO, BEGIN, READ (N);, SUM := SUM + N;, END;, WRITELN (‘THE SUM OF GIVEN NUMBERS=’, SUM);, END;, , Ref Page 228, , Chapter 12: Computer Languages, , Slide 44/59, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 499 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , C, § Developed in 1972 at AT&T’s Bell laboratories, USA, by Dennis Ritchie and Brian Kernighan, § Standardized by ANSI and ISO as C89, C90, C99, § High-level programming languages (mainly machine, independence) with the efficiency of an assembly, language, § Language of choice of programmers for portable, systems software and commercial software packages, like OS, compiler, spreadsheet, word processor, and, database management systems, , Ref Page 229, , Chapter 12: Computer Languages, , Slide 45/59, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 500 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , A Sample C Program, /* PROGRAM TO COMPUTE THE SUM OF 10 NUMBERS */, /* Directives to include standard library and header */, #include <stdlib.h>, #include <stdio.h>, /* Main function starts here */, void main ( ), {, /* Declaration of variables */, float Sum = 0.0, N = 0.0;, int Count = 0;, for (Count = 0; Count < 10; Count++), {, printf(“\nGive a number:”);, scanf(“%f”, N);, Sum += N;, }, printf(“THE SUM OF GIVEN NUMBERS = %f”, &Sum);, }, , Ref Page 230, , Chapter 12: Computer Languages, , Slide 46/59, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 501 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , C++, § Named C++ as ++ is increment operator and C, language is incremented to its next level with C++, § Developed by Bjarne Stroustrup at Bell Labs in the, early 1980s, § Contains all elements of the basic C language, § Expanded to include numerous object-oriented, programming features, § Provides a collection of predefined classes, along with, the capability of user-defined classes, , Ref Page 229, , Chapter 12: Computer Languages, , Slide 47/59, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 502 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Java, § Development started at Sun Microsystems in 1991 by a, team led by James Gosling, § Developed to be similar to C++ with fewer features to, keep it simple and easy to use, § Compiled code is machine-independent and developed, programs are simple to implement and use, § Uses just-in-time compilation, § Used in embedded systems such as hand-held devices,, telephones and VCRs, § Comes in two variants – Java Runtime Engine (JRE) and, Java Software Development Kit (SDK), , Ref Page 231, , Chapter 12: Computer Languages, , Slide 48/59, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 503 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , C# (C Sharp), § Object-oriented programming language developed by, Anders Hejlsberg and released by Microsoft as part of, Microsoft’s .NET technology initiative, § Standardized by ECMA and ISO, § Syntactically and semantically very close to C++ and, adopts various object-oriented features from both C++, and Java, § Compilers target the Common Language Infrastructure, (CLI) implemented by Common Language Runtime (CLR), of .NET Framework, § CLR provides important services such as, memory, management, exception handling, and security, , Ref Page 232, , Chapter 12: Computer Languages, , Slide 49/59, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 504 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , RPG, § Stands for Report Program Generator, § Developed by IBM to meet customer requests for an, easy and economic mechanism for producing reports, § Designed to generate the output reports resulting from, the processing of common business applications, § Easier to learn and use as compared to COBOL, § Programmers use very detailed coding sheets to write, specifications about input, calculations, and output, , Ref Page 232, , Chapter 12: Computer Languages, , Slide 50/59, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 505 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , LISP, § Stands for LISt Processing, § Developed in 1959 by John McCarthy of MIT, § Designed to have features for manipulating nonnumeric data, such as symbols and strings of text, § Due to its powerful list processing capability, it is, extensively used in the areas of pattern recognition,, artificial intelligence, and for simulation of games, § Functional programming language in which all, computation is accomplished by applying functions to, arguments, , Ref Page 232, , Chapter 12: Computer Languages, , Slide 51/59, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 508 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Factors for Selecting a Language for, Coding an Application, § Nature of the application, § Familiarity with the language, § Ease of learning the language, § Availability of program development tools, § Execution efficiency, § Features of a good programming language, , Ref Page 234, , Chapter 12: Computer Languages, , Slide 54/59, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 509 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Subprogram, § Program written in a manner that it can be brought into, use in other programs and used whenever needed, without rewriting, § Also referred to as subroutine, sub-procedure, or function, § Subprogram call statement contains the name of the, subprogram followed by a list of parameters enclosed, within a pair of parentheses, § Intrinsic subprograms (also called built-in-functions) are, those provided with the programming language, § Programmer-written subprograms are written and used, as and when they are needed, , Ref Page 235, , Chapter 12: Computer Languages, , Slide 55/59, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 511 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Flow of Control in Case of Subprogram Calls, 2, , subprogram header, 3, subprogram body, , 6, , 1, 4, , subprogram call statement, next statement, , 7, 5, subprogram call statement, 8, 9, , A subprogram, , Ref Page 236, , Flow of control, , next statement, , A program that calls, the subprogram twice, , Chapter 12: Computer Languages, , Slide 57/59, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 512 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Key Words/Phrases, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, , Assembler, Assembly language, BASIC, Built-in function, C, C++, C#, COBOL, Coding, Compiler, Computer language, FORTRAN, Function, High-level language, HotJava Interpreter, Intrinsic subprogram, Intermediate compiler and, Interpreter, Java, , §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, , Just-in-time compilation, Language processor, Linker, LISP, Load module, Logic error, Low-level language, Machine language, Macro instructions, Object program, Object-oriented programming, Opcode, Operand, Pascal, Programmer, Programming, Programming language, Pseudo instruction, RPG, Self-documenting language, (Continued on next slide), , Ref Page 236, , Chapter 12: Computer Languages, , Slide 58/59, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 515 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Learning Objectives, In this chapter you will learn about:, § Main activities of implementation and operation, phase, § Testing and debugging of programs, § Complete documentation of the system, § Change over to the new system, § System evaluation and, § System maintenance, , Ref Page 239, , Chapter 13: System Implementation and Operation, , Slide 2/17, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 516 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Testing and Debugging, § Program errors are known as bugs, § Process of detecting and correcting these errors is called, debugging, § Testing is the process of making sure that the program, performs the intended task, § Debugging is the process of locating and eliminating, program errors, , Ref Page 239, , Chapter 13: System Implementation and Operation, , Slide 3/17, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 517 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Types of Program Errors, § Syntax errors, § Occurs when the rules or syntax of the programming, language are not followed, § For example, incorrect punctuation, incorrect word, sequence, undefined terms, and misuse of terms, § Syntax errors are detected by a language processor, § Logic errors, § Occurs due to errors in planning a program’s logic, § Such errors cause the program to produce incorrect, output., § These errors cannot be detected by a language, processor, , Ref Page 240, , Chapter 13: System Implementation and Operation, , Slide 4/17, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 518 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Testing of a Program, § Testing procedure involves running program to, process input test data, and comparing obtained, results with correct results, § Test data must test each logical function of the, program, and should include all types of possible, valid and invalid data, § Program internally released for testing is known as, alpha version and the test conducted on it is called, alpha testing, § Program released for additional testing to a selected, set of external users is beta version and test, conducted on it called is beta testing, , Ref Page 240, , Chapter 13: System Implementation and Operation, , Slide 5/17, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 519 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Debugging a Program for Syntax Errors, § Relatively easier to detect and correct syntax errors, than logic errors in a program, § Language processors are designed to automatically, detect syntax errors, § Single syntax error often causes multiple error, messages to be generated by the language processor, § Removal of the syntax error will result in the removal, of all associated error messages, , Ref Page 241, , Chapter 13: System Implementation and Operation, , Slide 6/17, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 520 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Debugging a Program for Logic Errors, § Logic errors are more difficult to detect than syntax, errors as computer does not produce any error, message for such errors, § One or more of following methods are commonly used, for locating logic errors:, § Doing hand simulation of the program code, § Putting print statements in the program code, § Using a debugger (a software tool that assists a, programmer in following the program’s execution, step-by-step), § Using memory dump (printout of the contents of, main memory and registers), , Ref Page 241, , Chapter 13: System Implementation and Operation, , Slide 7/17, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 521 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Difference Between Testing and, Debugging, Sr. No., , Testing, , Debugging, , 1, , § Testing is the process of, validating, the § Debugging is the process of, correctness of a program eliminating errors in a program, § Its, objective, is, to § Its objective is to detect the exact, demonstrate that the cause and remove known errors, program, meets, its in the program, design specifications, , 2, , § Testing, is, complete § Debugging is complete when all, when, all, desired known errors in the program have, verifications, against been fixed, specifications have been § Note that debugging process ends, only temporarily as it must be, performed, restarted whenever a new error is, found in the program, (Continued on next slide), , Ref Page 242, , Chapter 13: System Implementation and Operation, , Slide 8/17, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 522 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Difference Between Testing and, Debugging, (Continued from previous slide..), , Sr. No., , Testing, , Debugging, , 3, , § Testing is a definable process, which can and should be, planned, and, scheduled, properly, , § Debugging being a reactive process cannot, be planned ahead of time, § It must be carried out as and when errors, are found in a program, , 4, , § Testing can begin in the, early stages of software, development., § Although the test runs of a, program can be done only, after the program is coded,, but the decision of what to, test, how to test, and with, what kind of data to test, can, and should be done before, the coding is started, , § Debugging can begin only after the program, is coded, § The approach used for debugging largely, depends on the personal choice of the, programmer and the type of problem in the, program, , Ref Page 242, , Chapter 13: System Implementation and Operation, , Slide 9/17, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 523 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Documentation, § Process of collecting, organizing, storing, and otherwise, maintaining a complete historical record of programs, and other documents used or prepared during the, different phases of the life cycle of a software, § Three commonly used forms of documentation are:, § Program comments, § System manual, § User manual, , Ref Page 243, , Chapter 13: System Implementation and Operation, , Slide 10/17, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 524 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Changeover to the New System, § When a software is ready for use, it is deployed at site for use, by the intended users, § At this stage, a changeover from the old system of operation, to the new system takes place, § Three normally followed methods to carry out the changeover, process are:, § Immediate changeover, § Parallel run, § Phased conversion, , Ref Page 245, , Chapter 13: System Implementation and Operation, , Slide 11/17, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 526 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Changeover to the New System, Old system, in operation, , New, system in, operation, , Overlapping period of, complete operation of, both the old and the new, systems, , Old system, , New system, Time, (b) Parallel run, , Ref Page 247, , Chapter 13: System Implementation and Operation, , Slide 13/17, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 527 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Changeover to the New System, Old system, completely, operational, , Old and new systems, in operation in parts, , New system, completely, operational, , Old system, , New system, Time, (c) Phased conversion, , Ref Page 247, , Chapter 13: System Implementation and Operation, , Slide 14/17, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 528 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , System Evaluation, § Process of evaluating a system (after it is put in, operation) to verify whether or not it is meeting its, objectives, § Points normally considered for evaluating a system are:, § Performance evaluation, § Cost analysis, § Time analysis, § User satisfaction, § Ease of modification, § Failure rate, , Ref Page 248, , Chapter 13: System Implementation and Operation, , Slide 15/17, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 529 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , System Maintenance, § Process of incorporating changes in an existing system to, enhance, update, or upgrade its features, § On an average, maintenance cost of a computerized, system is two to four times more than the initial, development cost, , Ref Page 248, , Chapter 13: System Implementation and Operation, , Slide 16/17, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 530 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Key Words/Phrases, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, , Beta testing, Bugs, Comments, Debugger, Debugging, Documentation, Immediate changeover, Logic errors, Memory dump, Parallel run, Phased conversion, Syntax errors, System evaluation, System maintenance, System manual, Testing, User manual, , Ref Page 249, , Chapter 13: System Implementation and Operation, , Slide 17/17, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 532 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Learning Objectives, In this chapter you will learn about:, § Definition and need for operating system, § Main functions of an operating system, § Commonly used mechanisms for:, § Process management, § Memory management, § File management, § Security, § Command interpretation module, § Some commonly used OS capability enhancement software, § Some popular operating systems, , Ref Page 251, , Chapter 14: Operating Systems, , Slide 2/54, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 533 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Definition and Need for OS, § Integrated set of programs that controls the resources, (the CPU, memory, I/O devices, etc.) of a computer, system, § Provides its users with an interface or virtual machine, that is more convenient to use than the bare machine, § Two primary objectives of an OS are:, § Making a computer system convenient to use, § Managing the resources of a computer system, , Ref Page 251, , Chapter 14: Operating Systems, , Slide 3/54, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 534 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Logical, Logical Architecture, Architecture of, of a, a Computer, Computer System, System, , Users, Other, System Software and, Application Programs, Operating System, , Computer, Hardware, , Ref Page 252, , The operating system, layer hides the details of, the hardware from the, programmer, and, provides the programmer, with convenient interface, for using the system, , Chapter 14: Operating Systems, , Slide 4/54, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 536 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Parameters, Parameters for, for Measuring, Measuring System, System, Performance, Performance, , § Throughput: Amount of work that the system is able to, do per unit time, § Turnaround time: Interval from the time of submission, of a job to the system for processing to the time of, completion of the job, § Response time: Interval from the time of submission of a, job to the system for processing to the time the first, response for the job is produced by the system, , Ref Page 253, , Chapter 14: Operating Systems, , Slide 6/54, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 537 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Process Management, § A process (also called job) is a program in execution, § Process management manages the processes, submitted to a system in a manner to minimize idle time, of processors (CPUs, I/O processors, etc.) of the system, , Ref Page 253, , Chapter 14: Operating Systems, , Slide 7/54, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 538 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Process, Process Management, Management Mechanisms, Mechanisms in, in, Early, Early Systems, Systems, , § Manual loading mechanism: Jobs were manually, loaded one after another in a computer by the, computer operator, § Batch processing mechanism: Batch of jobs was, submitted together to the computer and job-to-job, transition was done automatically by the operating, system, § Job Control Language (JCL): Control statements, were used to facilitate job loading and unloading, , Ref Page 253, , Chapter 14: Operating Systems, , Slide 8/54, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 540 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Multiprogramming, § Uniprogramming: Only one job is processed at a, time and all system resources are available exclusively, for the job until its completion, § Multiprogramming: Interleaved execution of two or, more different and independent programs by a, computer, § Types of Multiprogramming:, § Multiprogramming with fixed tasks (MFT): Fixed, number of jobs can be processed concurrently, § Multiprogramming with variable tasks (MVT):, Number of jobs can vary, § Area occupied by each job residing simultaneously in, the main memory is known as a memory partition, , Ref Page 255, , Chapter 14: Operating Systems, , Slide 10/54, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 541 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Job, § CPU bound: Mostly perform computations with little, I/O operations. Scientific and engineering, computations usually fall in this category, § I/O bound: Mostly perform I/O operations with little, computation. Commercial data processing applications, usually fall in this category, , Ref Page 255, , Chapter 14: Operating Systems, , Slide 11/54, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 542 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Uniprogramming System, Main memory, Operating, system, , User job, , OS area, , User program area, , Execution in, progress, , CPU, , Only one job is processed by the system at a time and all, the system resources are exclusively available for the job, until it completes, Ref Page 255, , Chapter 14: Operating Systems, , Slide 12/54, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 546 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Process, Process Control, Control Block, Block (PCB), (PCB), process identifier, process state, program counter, values of various CPU, registers, accounting and scheduling, information, I/O status information, , PCB is used to preserve the job status of each loaded, process in a multiprogramming system, Ref Page 257, , Chapter 14: Operating Systems, , Slide 16/54, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 547 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Multitasking, § Interleaved execution of multiple jobs (often referred, to as tasks of same user) in a single-user system, § Computer systems used for multitasking are, uniprocessor systems (having only one CPU), § Treated differently from multiprogramming that refers, to interleaved execution of multiple jobs in a multiuser system, , Ref Page 258, , Chapter 14: Operating Systems, , Slide 17/54, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 548 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Multithreading, § Thread is basic unit of CPU utilization. Threads, share a CPU in the same way as processes do, § All threads of a process also share the same set of, operating system resources, § All threads of a process inherit parent’s address, space and security parameters, § Each thread of a process has its own program, counter, its own register states, and its own stack, § Referred as mini-process or lightweight process, , Ref Page 258, , Chapter 14: Operating Systems, , Slide 18/54, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 550 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Multiprocessing, § System with two or more CPUs having ability to execute, multiple processes concurrently, § Multiple CPUs are used to process either instructions from, different and independent programs or different, instructions from the same program simultaneously, § Types of multiprocessing:, § Tightly-coupled: Single system-wide primary memory, shared by all processors, § Loosely-coupled: Each processor has its own local, memory, , Ref Page 259, , Chapter 14: Operating Systems, , Slide 20/54, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 553 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Time-sharing, Time-sharing, § Simultaneous interactive use of a computer system by, many users in such a way that each one feels that, he/she is the sole user of the system, § User terminals connected to the same computer, simultaneously, § Uses multiprogramming with a special CPU scheduling, algorithm, § Short period during which a user process gets to use, CPU is known as time slice, time slot, or quantum, § CPU is taken away from a running process when the, allotted time slice expires, , Ref Page 261, , Chapter 14: Operating Systems, , Slide 23/54, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 554 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Process, Process State, State Diagram, Diagram for, for a, a Time-Sharing, Time-Sharing, System, System, , New, Job, , Ready, , Job is allocated to, CPU for execution, , Running, , Allotted time slice is over, I/O completed, Blocked, , Ref Page 261, , Chapter 14: Operating Systems, , Job, processing, completed, , Job must wait, for I/O, completion, , Slide 24/54, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 556 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Memory, Memory Management, Management, § Memory is important resource of a computer system, that must be properly managed for the overall system, performance, § Memory management module:, § Keeps track of parts of memory in use and parts not, in use, § Allocates memory to processes as needed and, deallocates when no longer needed, , Ref Page 262, , Chapter 14: Operating Systems, , Slide 26/54, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 557 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Uniprogramming, Uniprogramming Memory, Memory Model, Model, § Used in systems that process one job only at a time, and, all system resources are available exclusively for the job, until it completes, § Simple and easy to implement, § Does not lead to proper utilization of the main memory as, unoccupied memory space by the currently active user, process remains unused, § Used only on very small or dedicated computer systems, , Ref Page 262, , Chapter 14: Operating Systems, , Slide 27/54, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 559 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Multiprogramming, Multiprogramming Memory, Memory Models, Models, Two memory management schemes used to facilitate this, are:, § Multiprogramming with fixed number of memory, partitions: User area of the memory is divided into a, number of fixed-sized partitions, § Multiprogramming with variable number of memory, partitions: Number, size and location of the partitions, vary dynamically as processes come and go, , Ref Page 263, , Chapter 14: Operating Systems, , Slide 29/54, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 563 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Virtual Memory, Memory management scheme that allows execution of, processes that might not be completely loaded in the main, memory., It does not require the entire process to be in memory, before the process can execute, , Ref Page 265, , Chapter 14: Operating Systems, , Slide 33/54, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 564 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Virtual Memory Realization, Three basic concepts used for its realization are:, § On-line secondary storage: Used to keep a process’s, address space ready to be loaded into the memory, § Swapping: Process of transferring a block of data from, the on-line secondary storage to main memory, (swapping in) or vice-versa (swapping out), § Demand paging: Scheme of swapping in of pages of a, process as and when needed during execution of the, process, rather than loading all the pages before, starting the process’s execution, , Ref Page 265, , Chapter 14: Operating Systems, , Slide 34/54, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 565 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Advantages of Virtual Memory, § Provides a large virtual memory to programmers on a, system having smaller physical memory, § Enables execution of a process on a system whose main, memory size is less than the total memory required by the, process, § Enables a process’s execution to be started even when, sufficient free memory for loading the entire process is not, available, § Makes programming easier there no longer need to worry, about the memory size limitations, § Often leads to less I/O activity resulting in better, throughput, turnaround time, and response time, , Ref Page 266, , Chapter 14: Operating Systems, , Slide 35/54, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 566 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Disadvantages, Disadvantages of, of Virtual, Virtual Memory, Memory, § Difficult to implement because it requires algorithms to, support demand paging, § If used carelessly, it may substantially decrease, performance due to high page fault rate, , Ref Page 266, , Chapter 14: Operating Systems, , Slide 36/54, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 567 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , File Management, § A file is a collection of related information, § Every file has a name, its data and attributes, § File’s name uniquely identifies it in the system and is used, by its users to access it, § File’s data is its contents, § File’s attributes contain information such as date & time of, its creation, date & time of last access, date & time of last, update, its current size, its protection features, etc., § File management module of an operating system takes, care of file-related activities such as structuring,, accessing, naming, sharing, and protection of files, , Ref Page 266, , Chapter 14: Operating Systems, , Slide 37/54, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 568 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , File Access Methods, Two commonly supported file access methods are:, § Sequential access: Information stored in a file can be, accessed sequentially (in the order in which they are, stored, starting at the beginning), § Random access: Information stored in a file can be, accessed randomly irrespective of the order in which, the bytes or records are stored, , Ref Page 267, , Chapter 14: Operating Systems, , Slide 38/54, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 569 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , File Operations, § Set of commands provided by an operating system to, deal with files and their contents, § Typical file operations include create, delete, open,, close, read, write, seek, get attributes, set attributes,, rename, and copy, , Ref Page 267, , Chapter 14: Operating Systems, , Slide 39/54, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 570 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , File Naming, File naming deals with the rules for naming files in an, operating system. This may include such rules as:, § Maximum number of characters that a file name may, have, § Special characters allowed in a file name, § Distinction between upper case and lower case letters, § Multi-part file names allow file extensions to be part of a, file name. File extensions indicate something about the, file and its content, § Used by applications to check for the intended type of, file before operating on it, , Ref Page 268, , Chapter 14: Operating Systems, , Slide 40/54, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 571 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , File, File Extensions, Extensions (Example), (Example), File extension, , .bas, .c, .ftn, .pas, .obj, .bin, .lib, .dat, .hlp, .man, , Its meaning, Basic source program file, C source program file, Fortran source program file, Pascal source program file, Object file (compiler output, not yet linked), Executable binary program file, Library of .obj files used by the linker, Data file, Text file for HELP command, Online manual page file, , (Continued on next slide), , Ref Page 268, , Chapter 14: Operating Systems, , Slide 41/54, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 573 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Security, §, , Deals with protecting the various resources and information, of a computer system against destruction and unauthorized, access, , §, , External security: Deals with securing computer against, external factors such as fires, floods, earthquakes, stolen, disks/tapes, etc. by maintaining adequate backup, using, security guards, allowing access to sensitive information to, only trusted employees/users, etc., , §, , Internal security: Deals with user authentication, access, control, and cryptography mechanisms, , Ref Page 269, , Chapter 14: Operating Systems, , Slide 43/54, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 574 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Security, § User authentication: Deals with the problem of, verifying the identity of a user (person or program), before permitting access to the requested resource, § Access Control: Once authenticated, access control, mechanisms prohibit a user/process from accessing those, resources/information that he/she/it is not authorized to, access, § Cryptography: Means of encrypting private information, so that unauthorized access cannot use information, , Ref Page 269, , Chapter 14: Operating Systems, , Slide 44/54, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 575 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Command Interpretation, § Provides a set of commands using which the user can give, instructions to the computer for getting some job done by, it, § Commands supported by the command interpretation, module are known as system calls, , (Continued on next slide), , Ref Page 269, , Chapter 14: Operating Systems, , Slide 45/54, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 576 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Command Interpretation, (Continued from previous slide), , Two types of user interfaces supported by various operating, systems are:, §, , Command-line interface: User gives instructions to, the computer by typing the commands, , §, , Graphical User Interface (GUI): User gives, commands to the system by selecting icon or menu, item displayed on the screen with the use of a pointand-draw device, , Ref Page 269, , Chapter 14: Operating Systems, , Slide 46/54, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 577 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , OS, OS Capability, Capability Enhancement, Enhancement Software, Software, § Perform several tasks of routine nature, frequently, needed by users but are not provided as part of the OS, § They are primarily grouped into three categories:, § Translating programs: Translate a source program, into an object program, § Library programs: Consist of frequently used, functions and operations, § Utility programs: Assist users with system, maintenance tasks such as disk formatting, data, compression, data backups, antivirus utilities, , Ref Page 270, , Chapter 14: Operating Systems, , Slide 47/54, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 578 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , UNIX, UNIX OS, OS, § Developed in the early 1970s at Bell Laboratories by Ken, Thompson and Dennis Ritchie, § Written in C high-level language, hence, highly portable, § Multi-user, time-sharing OS, § Used on a wide variety of computers ranging from, notebook computers to super computers, § Especially prevalent on RISC workstations such as those, from Sun Microsystems, Hewlett-Packard, IBM, and, Silicon Graphics, § Structured in three layers – kernel, shell, and utilities, , Ref Page 272, , Chapter 14: Operating Systems, , Slide 48/54, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 579 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , MS-DOS, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , § Stands for Microsoft Disk Operating System., § Single-user OS for IBM and IBM-compatible personal, computers (PC), § Structured in three layers – BIOS (Basic Input Output, System), kernel, and shell, § Very popular in the 1980s, now not in much use and, development with the launch of Microsoft Windows OS in, 1990s, , Ref Page 272, , Chapter 14: Operating Systems, , Slide 49/54, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 580 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Microsoft Windows, § Developed by Microsoft to overcome limitations of MSDOS operating system, § Single-user, multitasking OS, § Native interface is a GUI, § Designed to be not just an OS but also a complete, operating environment, § OS of choice for most PCs after 1990, , Ref Page 272, , Chapter 14: Operating Systems, , Slide 50/54, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 581 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Microsoft Windows NT, § Multi-user, time-sharing OS developed by Microsoft, § Designed to have UNIX-like features so that it can be, used for powerful workstations, network, and database, servers, § Supports multiprogramming and is designed to take, advantage of multiprocessing on systems having, multiple processors, § Native interface is a GUI, § Built-in networking and communications features, § Provides strict system security, § Rich set of tools for software development, , Ref Page 273, , Chapter 14: Operating Systems, , Slide 51/54, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 582 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Linux, § Open-source OS enhanced and backed by thousands of, programmers world-wide, § Multi-tasking, multiprocessing OS, originally designed to, be used in PCs, § Name “Linux” is derived from its inventor Linus Torvalds, § Several Linux distributions available (Red Hat, SuSE)., Difference in distribution is mostly set of tools, number, and quality of applications, documentation, support, and, service, , Ref Page 273, , Chapter 14: Operating Systems, , Slide 52/54, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 583 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Keywords/Phrases, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, , Access control, Batch processing, Command interpretation, Command-line interface (CLI), CPU-bound jobs, Cryptography, Demand paging, External security, File, File attributes, File extensions, File management, Graphical User Interface (GUI), I/O-bound jobs, Internal security, Job control language (JCL), Library programs, Linux, Loosely coupled system, , §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, , Memory management, Memory partition, Microsoft Windows, Microsoft Windows NT, MS-DOS, Multiprocessing, Multiprogramming, Multiprogramming with fixed tasks (MFT), Multiprogramming with variable tasks, (MVT), Operating systems, Multithreading, Process, Process Control Block (PCB) Multitasking, Process management, Random access files, Response time, Security, Sequential access files, Swapping, , (Continued on next slide), Ref Page 274, , Chapter 14: Operating Systems, , Slide 53/54, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 587 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Word-Processing Package, § Word-processing describes use of hardware and software to, create, edit, view, format, store, retrieve, and print documents, (written material such as letters, reports, books, etc.), § Word-processing package enables us to do all these on a, computer system, , Ref. Page 278, , Chapter 15: Application Software Packages, , Slide 3/22, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 588 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Commonly Supported Features in a, Word-Processing Package, § Entering text, , § Printing documents, , § Editing text, , § Importing text, graphics and, images, , § Formatting page style, § Formatting text, , § Searching and replacing text, string, , § Entering mathematical, symbols, , § Checking spelling, , § Displaying documents, , § Checking grammar and style, , § Saving, retrieving and, deleting documents, , Ref. Page 279, , Chapter 15: Application Software Packages, , Slide 4/22, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 589 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Word-Processing (Few Terminologies), § Style sheet: Pre-stored page format that can be used, while creating a new document or can be applied to an, existing document, § Font: Complete set of characters with the same style, and size. A word-processing package comes with, several standard fonts, § Points: A point is 1/72 of an inch, and the size refers to, the distance from the top of the tallest character to the, bottom of the character that extends the lowest. Font, size is measured in points, , (Continued on next slide), , Ref. Page 280, , Chapter 15: Application Software Packages, , Slide 5/22, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 590 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Word-Processing (Few Terminologies), § Three commonly used font styles are italic, bold and, underline., § Justification: Alignment of text on the left or the, right margin, or on both margins. Four types of, justification are:, § Left-justification, § Right-justification, § Center-justification, § Full-justification, , Ref. Page 280, , Chapter 15: Application Software Packages, , Slide 6/22, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 591 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Different Font Types, This sentence is written in Times New Roman font., This sentence is written in Helvetica font., This sentence is written in Palatino font., This sentence is written in Courier New font., This sentence is written in Antique Olive font., , Ref. Page 280, , Chapter 15: Application Software Packages, , Slide 7/22, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 592 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Different Font Sizes, This sentence is written in 10 point Times New Roman font., , This sentence is written in 12 point Times New Roman font., , This sentence is written in 16 point Times New Roman font., , This sentence is written in 24 point Times New Roman font., , This sentence is written in 36 point Times, New Roman font., , Ref. Page 281, , Chapter 15: Application Software Packages, , Slide 8/22, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 593 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Different Font Styles, , This sentence is written in italic style., This sentence is written in bold style., This sentence is written in underline style., You can even make individual words italic, bold,, or underline., , Ref. Page 281, , Chapter 15: Application Software Packages, , Slide 9/22, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 594 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Different Justification Styles, The term hardware refers to the physical devices of a, computer system. Thus, the input, storage, processing,, control, and output devices are hardware., (a) Left Justified text, , The term hardware refers to the physical devices of a, computer system. Thus, the input, storage, processing,, control, and output devices are hardware., (b) Right Justified text, , The term hardware refers to the physical devices of a, computer system. Thus, the input, storage, processing,, control, and output devices are hardware., (c) Centered text, , Ref. Page 282, , Chapter 15: Application Software Packages, , Slide 10/22, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 596 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Spreadsheet Package, § Spreadsheet package is a numeric data analysis tool, that allows us to create a computerized ledger, § Useful for any numerical analysis problem whose data, can be organized as rows and columns, , Ref. Page 285, , Chapter 15: Application Software Packages, , Slide 12/22, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 597 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Uses of Spreadsheet Package, § Maintaining and analyzing inventory, payroll, and other, accounting records by accountants, § Preparing budgets and bid comparisons by business analysts, § Recording grades of students and carrying out various types, of analysis of the grades by educators, § Analyzing experimental results by scientists and researchers, § Tracking stocks and keeping records of investor accounts by, stockbrokers, § Creating and tracking personal budgets, loan payments, etc., by individuals, , Ref. Page 286, , Chapter 15: Application Software Packages, , Slide 13/22, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 598 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Common Features of Spreadsheet, Package, § Support for a large number of cells, , § Support for addressing a range of cells by the addresses of, the endpoint cells, § Support for different types of cell data (such as label,, numeric value, formula, and date & time), § Support for use of relative and absolute cell addresses in, formula, § Support for a wide range of commands, § Support for displaying numeric data in the form of graphs, and charts, , Ref. Page 286, , Chapter 15: Application Software Packages, , Slide 14/22, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 599 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Sample Spreadsheet, A label running across, multiple columns, , Row numbers, Column, letters, , A, 1, , B, , C, , E, , E, , F, , FINAL EXAM MARKS SHEET(CLASS-X: 2001), , 2, 3, , NAME, , PHYS, , CHEM, , MATHS, , TOTAL, , 4, , PERCE, T, , 5, , P. Davis, , 92, , 95, , 88, , 275, , 91.66, , 6, , A. Raje, , 86, , 82, , 94, , 262, , 87.33, , 7, , D. Rana, , 75, , 83, , 85, , 243, , 81.00, , 8, , M. Ray, , 77, , 75, , 72, , 224, , 74.66, , 9, , J. Smith, , 94, , 92, , 96, , 282, , 94.00, , A label, Cell F4, , 10, 11, Alphabetic Value, in a Cell, , Ref. Page 288, , Numeric, Value in a, Cell, , Cell C11, , Result of the function, @SUM(B9..D9), , Chapter 15: Application Software Packages, , Result of the, formula +, E9/3, , Slide 15/22, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 601 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Graphics Package, Graphics package enables us to use a computer system, for creating, editing, viewing, storing, retrieving and, printing designs, drawings, pictures, graphs and anything, else that can be drawn in the traditional manner, , Ref. Page 289, , Chapter 15: Application Software Packages, , Slide 17/22, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 603 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Computer Graphics (Few Terminologies), § Computer-aided-design (CAD): Integration of, computers and graphics design packages for the purpose, of automating the design and drafting process, § Vector graphics: Graphic object composed of patterns of, lines, points, circles, arcs and other geometric shapes, that can be easily represented by few geometric, parameters, § Raster graphics: Graphic object composed of patterns of, dots called pixels, , Ref. Page 290, , Chapter 15: Application Software Packages, , Slide 19/22, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 604 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Personal-assistance Package, Personal-assistance package allows individuals to:, § Use personal computers for storing and retrieving their, personal information, § Planning and managing their schedules, contacts,, finances and inventory of important items, , Ref. Page 291, , Chapter 15: Application Software Packages, , Slide 20/22, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 606 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Key Words/Phrases, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, , Bit-mapped image, Bold, Cell, Center justification, Clip art library, Computer Aided Design, (CAD), Font, Full justification, Graphics package, Italic, Justification, Landscape mode, Left justification, Personal assistance package, Portrait mode, Raster graphics, Right justification, Spreadsheet package, , Ref. Page 292, , Style sheet, Underline, Vector graphics, What You See Is What you Get, (WYSIWYG), § Word-processing, § Word-processing package, §, §, §, §, , Chapter 15: Application Software Packages, , Slide 22/22, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 608 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Learning Objectives, In this chapter you will learn about:, § Difference between data and information, § Data processing converts raw data into useful information, § Data storage hierarchy commonly used to facilitate data, processing, § Standard methods of organizing data, § Basic concepts of database systems, , Ref. Page 295, , Chapter 16: Business Data Processing, , Slide 2/32, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 609 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Data, Data Processing, Processing, § Data is a collection of facts – unorganized but able to, be organized into useful information, § Information is data arranged in an order and form that, is useful to the people who receive it, § Data processing is a series of actions or operations, that converts data into useful information, § A data processing system includes resources such as, people, procedures, and devices used to process input, data for producing desirable output, , Ref. Page 295, , Chapter 16: Business Data Processing, , Slide 3/32, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 610 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Data, Data Storage, Storage Hierarchy, Hierarchy, Level 0, Level 1, , Level 2, , Level 3, , Level 4, , Level 5, , Ref. Page 296, , Bit, , A single binary digit (0 or 1), , Character, , Field, , Record, , File, , Database, , Multiple related bits are combined to, form a character (byte), Multiple related characters are combined to, form a field, Multiple related fields are combined to, form a record, Multiple related records are combined to, form a file, Multiple related files are integrated to, form a database, , Chapter 16: Business Data Processing, , Slide 4/32, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 612 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Standard, Standard Methods, Methods of, of Organizing, Organizing Data, Data, § File-oriented approach: Application’s data is organized, into one or more files and application program processes, them to generate the desired output, § Database-oriented approach: Data from multiple, related files are integrated together to form a database:, § Provides greater query flexibility, § Reduces data redundancy, § Solves data integrity (inconsistency) problem, § Makes data independent of the application programs, § Includes data security features at database level,, record level, and field level, , (Continued on next slide), Ref. Page 297, , Chapter 16: Business Data Processing, , Slide 6/32, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 613 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , File, File Management, Management System, System, § In file-oriented approach of organizing data, an, application’s data is organized into one or more files, § Application program processes the data stored in these, files to generate the desired output, § Set of programs is provided to facilitate the users in, organizing, creating, deleting, updating, and, manipulating their files, § All these programs together form a File Management, System (FMS), , Ref. Page 299, , Chapter 16: Business Data Processing, , Slide 7/32, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 614 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , File, File Types, Types, A file management system supports following file types:, § Transaction file: Stores input data until it can be, processed, § Master file: Contains all current data relevant to an, application, § Output file: Stores output produced by one program, that is used as input to another program, § Report file: Holds a copy of a report generated by an, application, § Backup file: Copy of a file, created as a safety, precaution against loss of data, , Ref. Page 299, , Chapter 16: Business Data Processing, , Slide 8/32, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 615 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , File, File Organizations, Organizations, §, , File organization is the physical organization of the, records of a file for convenience of storage and retrieval, of data records, , §, , Three commonly used file organizations are:, §, , Sequential: Records are stored one after another in, ascending or descending order determined by the, value of the key field of the records, , §, , Direct/random: Desired record pertaining to current, transaction can be directly located by its key field, value without having to navigate through sequence of, other records, , (Continued on next slide), , Ref. Page 300, , Chapter 16: Business Data Processing, , Slide 9/32, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 616 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , File, File Organizations, Organizations, (Continued from previous slide), , §, , Indexed sequential: There are two files for every, data file – the data file which contains the records, stored in the file, and the smaller index file which, contains the key and disk address of each record, stored in the data file, , Ref. Page 300, , Chapter 16: Business Data Processing, , Slide 10/32, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 617 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Organization, Organization of, of An, An Indexed, Indexed, Sequential, Sequential File, File, Employee, Code (key), , Address, Location, , Address, Location, , Employee Record, , 0001, , 1003, , 1001, , 0002 R. S. Patel …, , 0002, , 1001, , 1002, , 0004 R. K. Rana …, , 0003, , 1004, , 1003, , 0001 K. P. Sinha …, , 0004, , 1002, , 1004, , 0003 N. P. Singh …, , Index file, , Ref. Page 302, , Chapter 16: Business Data Processing, , Data file, , Slide 11/32, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 618 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , File, File Utilities, Utilities, § Routines to perform a variety of generalized operations, on data files, § Operations performed by some commonly used file, utilities are Sorting, Searching, Merging, Copying,, Printing, and Maintenance, , Ref. Page 303, , Chapter 16: Business Data Processing, , Slide 12/32, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 619 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Sorting, Sorting On, On One, One Key, Key, Employee, Code, , Department, Code, , Other fields (Name,, Address, Qualification,, Basic Salary, etc.), , 101, , 2, , ---, , 123, , 3, , ---, , 124, , 1, , ---, , 176, , 2, , ---, , 178, , 1, , ---, , 202, , 3, , ---, , 213, , 1, , ---, , Sorting on ascending employee code sequence, , Ref. Page 303, , Chapter 16: Business Data Processing, , Slide 13/32, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 620 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Sorting, Sorting On, On Two, Two Key, Key, Employee, Code, , Department, Code, , Other fields (Name, Address,, Qualification, Basic Salary,, etc.), , 124, , 1, , ---, , 178, , 1, , ---, , 213, , 1, , ---, , 101, , 2, , ---, , 176, , 2, , ---, , 123, , 3, , ---, , 202, , 3, , ---, , Sorting on a ascending employee code (secondary, key) within ascending department code (primary key), , Ref. Page 303, , Chapter 16: Business Data Processing, , Slide 14/32, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 621 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Merging, Merging of, of Two, Two Files, Files, Output file, , Input file, Employee Other, fields, code, …, 125, …, 127, …, 137, …, , 146, , …, , 159, , File A, , Employee, code, , Other, fields, …, , 112, , …, , 119, , …, , 125, , …, , 127, , …, , 129, , …, , 137, , Input file, Employee, code, , Other, fields, …, , 112, , …, , 119, , …, , 129, 139, , …, , 150, , …, …, , 152, , …, , 139, , …, , 146, , File B, , …, , 150, , …, , 152, , …, , 159, File C, , Merging of files A and B to produce file C, Ref. Page 304, , Chapter 16: Business Data Processing, , Slide 15/32, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 622 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Database, Database Management, Management System, System, § In database-oriented approach of organizing data, a, set of programs is provided to facilitate users in, organizing, creating, deleting, updating, and, manipulating data in a database, § All these programs together form a Database, Management System (DBMS), , Ref. Page 305, , Chapter 16: Business Data Processing, , Slide 16/32, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 623 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Database, Database Models, Models, § Database model defines the manner in which the, various files of a database are linked together., § Four commonly used database models are:, § Hierarchical, § Network, § Relational, § Object-oriented, , Ref. Page 305, , Chapter 16: Business Data Processing, , Slide 17/32, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 626 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Relational, Relational Database, Database, Membership, No., , Member’s, name, , Member’s Address, , Borrower, (Membership No.), , Book No., (ISBN), , Due Date, (DD-MM-YYYY), , 83569, , K. N. Raina, , C-15, Sarita Vihar, Pune-7, , 12859, , 27-21675-2, , 10-12-2007, , 62853, , D. P. Singh, , A-22, Anand Park, Pune-5, , 11348, , 89303-530-0, , 08-11-2007, , 12859, , R. Pandey, , D-18, Vrindavan, Pune-7, , 32228, , 13-201702-5, , 10-11-2007, , 32228, , R. S. Gupta, , A-12, Nandanvan, Pune-2, , 16185, , 22-68111-7, , 05-12-2007, , 23466, , S. K. Ray, , B-05, Royal Villa, Pune-3, , 12859, , 71606-214-0, , 06-11-2007, , 11348, , P. K. Sen, , B-16, Anand Park, Pune-5, , 62853, , 13-48049-8, , 15-11-2007, , 16185, , T. N. Murli, , A-11, Vrindavan, Pune-7, , 11348, , 18-23614-1, , 12-11-2007, , (a) Members data table., Book No. (ISBN), , Ref. Page 308, , (b) Borrowed books data table, Book Title, , Author, , 13-201702-5, , Concepts of Physics, , H. C. Verma, , 13-48049-8, , Concepts of Chemistry, , S. S. Dubey, , 18-23614-1, , Astrology for You, , N. K. Sharma, , 22-68111-7, , Fundamentals of Computers, , K. Ramesh, , 27-21675-2, , C++ Programming, , R. P. Rajan, , 71606-214-0, , Computer Networks, , A. N. Rai, , 89303-530-0, , Database Systems, , P. N. Dixit, , Chapter 16: Business Data Processing, , (c) Books data table, , Slide 20/32, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 627 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Sample, Sample Report, Report, List of overdue books as on 10-11-2007, Membership, No., 11348, , Member’s, Name, P. K. Sen, , Member’s, Address, B-16,, Anand, Pune-5, , Due, Date, , Book No., , Book Title, , 08-11, , 89303-530-0, , Database, Systems, , Park,, , Book, Author, P. N. Dixit, , 32228, , R. S. Gupta, , A-12,, Nandanvan,, Pune-2, , 10-11, , 13-201702-5, , Concepts, Physics, , 12859, , R. Pandey, , D-18,, Vrindavan,, Pune-7, , 06-11, , 71606-214-0, , Computer, Networks, , of, , H. C. Verma, , A. N. Rai, , A report of overdue books as of 10-11-2007 from the, sample database of previous slide, , Ref. Page 308, , Chapter 16: Business Data Processing, , Slide 21/32, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 628 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Object-Oriented, Object-Oriented Database, Database, Vehicle, , VehicleSpecs, , Id, Color, Specifications, Manufacturer, , TwoWheeler, , FourWheeler, , Other details, of the vehicle, like with/, without gear,, seating, capacity, etc., , Other details, of the vehicle, like no. of, doors, seating, capacity, etc., , Class/subclass link, Attribute/domain link, , Ref. Page 309, , Length, Width, Height, Engine Type, Fuel Type, Fuel Tank Capacity, No. of Wheels, , Company, Name, Location, President, , Employee, Id, Name, Age, , DomesticCompany, , ForeignCompany, , Other details of, the company, , Other details of, the company, , Chapter 16: Business Data Processing, , Slide 22/32, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 629 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Main, Main Components, Components of, of a, a DBMS, DBMS, § DBMS allows users to organize, process and retrieve, selected data from a database without knowing about, the underlying database structure, § Four major components of a DBMS that enable this, are:, § Data Definition Language (DDL): Used to define the, structure (schema) of a database, § Data Manipulation Language (DML): Provides, commands to enable the users to enter and, manipulate the data, , (Continued on next slide), , Ref. Page 310, , Chapter 16: Business Data Processing, , Slide 23/32, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 630 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Main, Main Components, Components of, of a, a DBMS, DBMS, (Continued from previous slide), , § Query Language: Enables users to define their, requirements for extracting the desired information, from the database in the form of queries, § Report generator: Enables the users of a database, to design the layout of a report so that it can be, presented in the desired format, , Ref. Page 310, , Chapter 16: Business Data Processing, , Slide 24/32, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 631 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Creating, Creating a, a Database, Database, Creation of a database is a three step process:, §, , Defining its structure (schema), , §, , Designing forms (custom screens) for displaying and, entering data, , §, , Entering the data into it, , Ref. Page 312, , Chapter 16: Business Data Processing, , Slide 25/32, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 633 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Viewing,, Viewing, Modifying,, Modifying, Deleting,, Deleting, and, and, Adding, Adding Records, Records, , § All database systems provide commands to view,, modify, delete, or add records of an already, established database, § Many database systems also provide a facility to set up, a filter allowing user to browse through and view only, those records that meet some criterion, , Ref. Page 314, , Chapter 16: Business Data Processing, , Slide 27/32, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 634 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Searching, Searching a, a Database, Database, Commonly supported features for enabling a user to, search for desired information in a database are:, §, , Find command: Used for simple database queries, , §, , Query language: Used for more complex database, queries, , §, , Query By Example (QBE): Provides a simple user, interface for specifying search criteria, , Ref. Page 315, , Chapter 16: Business Data Processing, , Slide 28/32, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 635 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Creating, Creating Reports, Reports, § Reports are generated by using report generator of a, database system to assemble the output of a database, query in desired format, § Report generator enables user to specify layout of the, report, titles & subtitles for the report, column, headings for various fields, and other elements to, make the report appear more presentable, , Ref. Page 316, , Chapter 16: Business Data Processing, , Slide 29/32, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 637 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Key, Key Words/Phrases, Words/Phrases, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, , Activity ratio, Backup file, Collision, Copying, Data, Data Definition Language (DDL), Data dependence, Data dictionary, Data file, Data integrity, Data Manipulation Language, (DML), Data processing, Data redundancy, Data storage hierarchy, Database, Database administrator, Database Management System, (DBMS), , §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, , Database model, Direct file, Field, File, File Management System (FMS), File utilities, Filter, Hashing, Hashing algorithm, Hierarchical database, Index file, Indexed sequential file, Information, Master file, Merging, Network database, Output file, Peripheral Interchange Program, Primary key, (Continued on next slide), , Ref. Page 317, , Chapter 16: Business Data Processing, , Slide 31/32, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 638 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Key, Key Words/Phrases, Words/Phrases, (Continued from previous slide), §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, , Query By Example, Query language, Record, Relational database, Report file, Report Generator, Schema, Searching, Secondary key, Secondary key, Sequential file, Sorting, Transaction file, Tuple, , Ref. Page 317, , Chapter 16: Business Data Processing, , Slide 32/32, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 640 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Learning Objectives, In this chapter you will learn about:, §, , Basic elements of a communication system, , §, , Techniques, channels, and devices used to transmit, data between distant locations, , §, , Types of computer networks, , §, , Communication protocols and their use in computer, networks, , §, , Internetworking tools and their use in building large, computer networks, , §, , Characteristics and advantages of distributed data, processing, , Ref. Page 320, , Chapter 17: Data Communications and Computer Networks, , Slide 2/57, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 643 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Data Transmission Speed, § Bandwidth: Range of frequencies available for data, transmission. It refers to data transmission rate. Higher, the bandwidth, the more data it can transmit, § Baud: Unit of measurement of data transfer rate., Measured in bits per second (bps), , Ref. Page 322, , Chapter 17: Data Communications and Computer Networks, , Slide 5/57, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 644 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Data Transmission Speed Category, § Narrowband: Sub-voice grade channels in range from, 45 to 300 baud. Mainly used for telegraph lines and, low-speed terminals, § Voiceband: Voice grade channels with speed up to, 9600 baud. Mainly used for ordinary telephone voice, communication and slow I/O devices, § Broadband: High speed channels with speed up to 1, million baud or more. Mainly used for high-speed, computer-to-computer communication or for, simultaneous transmission of data, , Ref. Page 322, , Chapter 17: Data Communications and Computer Networks, , Slide 6/57, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 651 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Digital and Analog Data Transmission, § Analog signal: Transmitted power varies over a, continuous range. Example: sound, light, and radio, waves, § Digital signal: Sequence of voltage pulses represented, in binary form, § Computer generated data signal is digital, whereas, telephone lines carry analog signals, , (Continued on next slide), , Ref. Page 327, , Chapter 17: Data Communications and Computer Networks, , Slide 13/57, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 652 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Digital and Analog Data Transmission, (Continued from previous slide), , § When digital data is to be sent over an analog facility,, digital signals must be converted to analog form, § Conversion of digital signal to analog form is known as, modulation, § Conversion of analog signal to digital form is known as, demodulation, § Digital transmission of data is preferred over analog, transmission of data due to lower cost, higher, transmission speeds, and lower error rate, , Ref. Page 329, , Chapter 17: Data Communications and Computer Networks, , Slide 14/57, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 653 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Analog and Digital Signals, , Voltage, +v, 0, , 1/f, , -v, , t, , 2/f, , (a) Analog signal, , v, , 1, 0, , 1, , 1, 0, , 1, 0, , 0, , t, , (b) Digital signal, , Ref. Page 328, , Chapter 17: Data Communications and Computer Networks, , Slide 15/57, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 654 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Modulation Techniques, § Amplitude Modulation (AM): Two binary values (0 and, 1) of digital data are represented by two different, amplitudes of the carrier signal, keeping frequency and, phase constant, § Frequency Modulation (FM): Two binary values of, digital data are represented by two different frequencies,, while amplitude and phase are kept constant, § Phase Modulation (PM): Two binary values of digital, data are represented by shift in phase of carrier signal, , Ref. Page 328, , Chapter 17: Data Communications and Computer Networks, , Slide 16/57, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 655 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Modems, § Modem is short for MOdulator/DEModulator, § Special device used for conversion of digital data to, analog form (modulation) and vice-versa (demodulation), § Essential piece of hardware where two digital devices, (say two computers) want to communicate over an, analog transmission channel (say a telephone line), , Ref. Page 328, , Chapter 17: Data Communications and Computer Networks, , Slide 17/57, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 656 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Use of Modems in Data Communications, , Digital signals, , 01 1 0, Sender, Computer, , Analog signals on, telephone line, , Modulator, , Demodulator, 0 100, , modem at, sender, computer end, , Ref. Page 329, , Digital signals, , Demodulator 0 1 1 0, , Modulator, , 0 1 00, , Receiver, Computer, , modem at, receiver, computer end, , Chapter 17: Data Communications and Computer Networks, , Slide 18/57, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 658 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Data Transmission Services, § Data transmission service providers are popularly, known as common carriers, § Various types of services offered by common carriers, are:, § Dial-up line: Operates in a manner similar to a, telephone line, § Leased line: Special conditioned telephone line, that directly and permanently connects two, computers, § Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN):, Telephone system that provides digital (not analog), telephone and data services, , (Continued on next slide), Ref. Page 330, , Chapter 17: Data Communications and Computer Networks, , Slide 20/57, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 659 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Data Transmission Services, (Continued from previous slide), , § Value Added Network (VAN): Provides value-added, data transmission service. Value added over and, above the standard services of common carriers may, include e-mail, data encryption/decryption, access to, commercial databases, and code conversion for, communication between computers, , Ref. Page 331, , Chapter 17: Data Communications and Computer Networks, , Slide 21/57, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 660 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Multiplexing, § Method of dividing physical channel into many logical, channels so that a number of independent signals may, be simultaneously transmitted, § Electronic device that performs multiplexing is known, as a multiplexer, § Multiplexing enables a single transmission medium to, concurrently transmit data between several, transmitters and receivers, , Ref. Page 331, , Chapter 17: Data Communications and Computer Networks, , Slide 22/57, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 661 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Two Basic Methods of Multiplexing, § Frequency-Division Multiplexing (FDM): Available, bandwidth of a physical medium is divided into several, smaller, disjoint logical bandwidths. Each component, bandwidth is used as a separate communication line, § Time-Division Multiplexing (TDM): Total time, available in a channel is divided among several users,, and each user of the channel is allotted a time slice, during which he/she may transmit a message, , Ref. Page 332, , Chapter 17: Data Communications and Computer Networks, , Slide 23/57, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 664 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Asynchronous and Synchronous, Transmission, § Two modes of data transmission on a communication, line are asynchronous and synchronous, § Asynchronous transmission, § Sender can send data at any convenient time and, the receiver will accept it, § Data is transmitted character by character at, irregular intervals, § Well suited to many keyboard type terminals, , (Continued on next slide), , Ref. Page 333, , Chapter 17: Data Communications and Computer Networks, , Slide 26/57, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 665 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Asynchronous and Synchronous, Transmission, § Synchronous transmission, , (Continued from previous slide), , § Sender and receiver must synchronize with each, other to get ready for data transmission before it, takes place, § Entire blocks of characters are framed and, transmitted together, § Well suited to remote communication between a, computer and such devices as buffered terminals, and printers, , Ref. Page 333, , Chapter 17: Data Communications and Computer Networks, , Slide 27/57, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 666 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Data Transmission, Irregular time intervals, between two characters, Character, , Each character framed by, start and stop bits, , Character, , Character, , (a) Asynchronous transmission, , Indefinite time interval, between two blocks of data, , A block of characters may, consist of hundreds of, characters, , Char Char, , Char Char, , Trailer containing end of block, indication, , Char Char, , Header containing synchronizing, and other information, , (b) Synchronous transmission, , Ref. Page 334, , Chapter 17: Data Communications and Computer Networks, , Slide 28/57, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 667 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Switching Techniques, § Data is often transmitted from source to destination, through a network of intermediate nodes, § Switching techniques deal with the methods of, establishing communication links between the sender, and receiver in a communication network, § Three commonly used switching techniques are:, § Circuit switching: Dedicated physical path is, established between sending and receiving stations, through nodes of the network for the duration of, communication, , (Continued on next slide), , Ref. Page 334, , Chapter 17: Data Communications and Computer Networks, , Slide 29/57, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 668 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Switching Techniques, (Continued from previous slide), , § Message switching: Sender appends receiver’s, destination address to the message and it is, transmitted from source to destination either by, store-and-forward method or broadcast method, § Packet switching: Message is split up into fixed size, packets and each packet is transmitted independently, from source to destination node. Either store-andforward or broadcast method is used for transmitting, the packets. All the packets of a message are reassembled into original message at the destination, node, , Ref. Page 336, , Chapter 17: Data Communications and Computer Networks, , Slide 30/57, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 670 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Store-and-Forward Method of, Message Switching, D, 5, A, , 4, , 1, , B, , 3, 2, C, C, Either path 1-2-3-4 or 1-5-4 may be used to, transmit a message from A to B., , Ref. Page 336, , Chapter 17: Data Communications and Computer Networks, , Slide 32/57, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 672 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Routing Techniques, § In a WAN, when multiple paths exist between the source, and destination nodes of a packet, any one of the paths, may be used to transfer the packet, § Selection of path to be used for transmitting a packet is, determined by the routing technique used, § Two popularly used routing algorithms are:, § Source routing: Source node selects the entire path, before sending the packet, § Hop-by-hop routing: Each node along the path, decides only the next node for the path, , Ref. Page 338, , Chapter 17: Data Communications and Computer Networks, , Slide 34/57, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 673 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Network Topologies, § Term network topology refers to the way in which, the nodes of a network are linked together, § Although number network topologies are possible,, four major ones are:, § Star network, § Ring network, § Completely connected network, § Multi-access bus network, , Ref. Page 338, , Chapter 17: Data Communications and Computer Networks, , Slide 35/57, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 679 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Network Types, § Networks are broadly classified into two types: Local, Area Network (LAN) and Wide Area Network (WAN), § Local Area Network (LAN) as compared to WAN:, § Limited to a small geographic coverage, § Has much higher data transmission rate, § Experiences fewer data transmission errors, § Has lower data communication cost, § Typically owned by a single organization, § Networks that share some of the characteristics of both, LANs and WANs are referred to as Metropolitan Area, Network (MAN), , Ref. Page 342, , Chapter 17: Data Communications and Computer Networks, , Slide 41/57, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 680 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Communication Protocols, § Protocol is a set of formal operating rules, procedures,, or conventions that govern a given process, § Communication protocol describes rules that govern, transmission of data over communication networks, § Roles of communication protocol:, § Data sequencing, § Data routing, § Data formatting, § Flow control, § Error control, (Continued on next slide), , Ref. Page 343, , Chapter 17: Data Communications and Computer Networks, , Slide 42/57, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 681 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Communication Protocols, (Continued from previous slide), , § Precedence and order of transmission, § Connection establishment and termination, § Data security, § Log information., § Communication protocols are normally split up into a, series of modules logically composed of a succession of, layers., § Terms protocol suite, protocol family, or protocol stack, are used to refer to the collection of protocols (of all, layers) of a network system, , Ref. Page 343, , Chapter 17: Data Communications and Computer Networks, , Slide 43/57, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 682 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Network Interface Card (NIC), § Hardware device that allows a computer to be, connected to a network, both functionally and, physically, § Printed circuit board installed on to one of the, expansion slots of computer, § Provides a port on the back to which network cable is, attached, , Ref. Page 344, , Chapter 17: Data Communications and Computer Networks, , Slide 44/57, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 683 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , The OSI Model, § The Open System Interconnection (OSI) model is, framework for defining standards for linking, heterogeneous computers in a packet switched, network, § Standardized OSI protocol makes it possible for any, two heterogeneous computer systems, located, anywhere in the world, to easily communicate with, each other, § Separate set of protocols is defined for each layer in its, seven-layer architecture. Each layer has an, independent function, , Ref. Page 344, , Chapter 17: Data Communications and Computer Networks, , Slide 45/57, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 684 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Layers, Interfaces, and Protocols, in the OSI Model, Node 2, , Node 1, , Process B, , Process A, Layer 7, (application), Interface, Layer 6, (presentation), , Application protocol, , Presentation protocol, , Layer 7, (application), Interface, Layer 6, (presentation), , Interface, Layer 5, (session), , Session protocol, , Interface, Layer 4, (transport), , Transport protocol, , Interface, Layer 4, (transport), , Interface, Layer 3, (network), , Network protocol, , Interface, Layer 3, (network), , Interface, Layer 2, (data link), , Data-link protocol, , Interface, Layer 2, (data link), , Physical protocol, , Interface, Layer 1, (physical), , Interface, Layer 1, (physical), , Interface, Layer 5, (session), , Network, , Ref. Page 346, , Chapter 17: Data Communications and Computer Networks, , Slide 46/57, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 687 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Bridges, § Operate at bottom two layers of the OSI model, § Connect networks that use the same communication, protocols above data-link layer but may use different, protocols at physical and data-link layers, , Ref. Page 349, , Chapter 17: Data Communications and Computer Networks, , Slide 49/57, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 688 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Routers, § Operates at network layer of the OSI model, § Used to interconnect those networks that use the same, high-level protocols above network layer, § Smarter than bridges as they not only copy data from, one network segment to another, but also choose the, best route for the data by using routing table, , Ref. Page 349, , Chapter 17: Data Communications and Computer Networks, , Slide 50/57, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 689 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Gateways, § Operates at the top three layers of the OSI model, (session, presentation and application), § Used for interconnecting dissimilar networks that use, different communication protocols, § Since gateways interconnect dissimilar networks,, protocol conversion is the major job performed by, them, , Ref. Page 349, , Chapter 17: Data Communications and Computer Networks, , Slide 51/57, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 690 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Wireless Computing Systems, § Wireless computing system uses wireless communication, technologies for interconnecting computer systems, § Enhances functionality of computing equipment by freeing, communication from location constraints of wired, computing systems, § Wireless computing systems are of two types:, § Fixed wireless systems: Support little or no, mobility of the computing equipment associated with, the wireless network, § Mobile wireless systems: Support mobility of the, computing equipment to access resources associated, with the wireless network, , Ref. Page 349, , Chapter 17: Data Communications and Computer Networks, , Slide 52/57, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 692 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Distributed Computing Systems, §, , Configuration where many independent computer, systems are connected, and messages, processing task,, programs, data, and other resources are transmitted, between cooperating computer systems, , §, , Such an arrangement enables sharing of many, hardware and software resources as well as information, among several users who may be sitting far away from, each other, , Ref. Page 352, , Chapter 17: Data Communications and Computer Networks, , Slide 54/57, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 693 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Main Advantages of Distributed, Computing Systems, § Inherently distributed applications, § Information sharing among distributed users, § Resource sharing, , § Shorter response times and higher throughput, § Higher reliability, § Extensibility and incremental growth, § Better flexibility in meeting users’ needs, , Ref. Page 353, , Chapter 17: Data Communications and Computer Networks, , Slide 55/57, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 694 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Keywords/Phrases, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, , Amplifier, Amplitude Modulation (AM), Application layer, ARPANET, Asynchronous transmission, Bandwidth, Baud, Bridge, Broadband, Broadcast, C-band transmission, Circuit switching, Coaxial cable, Common Carriers, Communication protocol, Communications satellite, Completely connected network, Computer network, Concentrators, Data-link layer, Demodulation, , §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, , Dial-up line, Distributed Computing System, Ethernet, Fax modem, File Transfer Protocol (FTP), Font-End Processors (FEP), Frequency Modulation (FM), Frequency-Division Multiplexing (FDM), Full duplex, Gateway, Half duplex, Hop-by-hop routing, Hybrid network, Internet Protocol (IP), Internetworking, ISDN (Integrated Services Digital Network), Ku-band transmission, Leased line, Local Area Network (LAN), Message switching, (Continued on next slide), , Ref. Page 354, , Chapter 17: Data Communications and Computer Networks, , Slide 56/57, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 695 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Keywords/Phrases, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, , Metropolitan Area Network (MAN), Microwave system, Mobile computing, Modem, Modulation, Multi-access Bus network, Multiplexer, Narrowband, Network Interface Card (NIC), Network layer, Network topology, Nomadic computing, Optical fibers, OSI Model, Packet switching, Phase Modulation (PM), Physical layer, POTS (Plain Old Telephone Service), Presentation layer, Protocol family, Protocol stack, , Ref. Page 354, , §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, , Protocol suite (Continued from previous slide), Repeater, Ring network, Router, Session layer, Simplex, Source routing, Star network, Store-and-forward, Synchronous transmission, Time-Division Multiplexing (TDM), Transport Control Protocol (TCP), Transport layer, Twisted-pair, Unshielded twisted-pair (UTP), User Datagram Protocol (UDP), Value Added Network (VAN), Voiceband, VSAT (Very Small Aperture Terminals), Wide Area Network (WAN), Wireless network, , Chapter 17: Data Communications and Computer Networks, , Slide 57/57, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 698 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , The Internet, § The Internet is a network of computers that links many, different types of computers all over the world, § Network of networks sharing a common mechanism for, addressing (identifying) computers, and a common set of, communication protocols, § Evolved from the basic ideas of ARPANET (the first WAN, that had only four sites in 1969) for interconnecting, computers, § Initially used only by research organizations and, universities to share and exchange information, , (Continued on next slide), , Ref. Page 358, , Chapter 18: The Internet, , Slide 3/16, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 699 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , The Internet, (Continued from previous slide..), , § In 1989, the US Government lifted restrictions on the use, of the Internet and allowed it to be used for commercial, purposes as well, § Internet has rapidly grown and continues to grow at a, rapid pace, § Interconnects more than 30,000 networks, allowing more, than 10 million computers and more than 50 million, computer users in more than 150 countries to, communicate with each other, , Ref. Page 358, , Chapter 18: The Internet, , Slide 4/16, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 700 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Basic Services of the Internet, § Electronic Mail (e-mail): Allows user to send a mail, (message) to another Internet user in any part of the, world in a near-real-time manner, § File Transfer Protocol (FTP): Allows user to move a, file from one computer to another on the Internet, § Telnet: Allows user to log in to another computer, somewhere on the Internet, § Usenet News: Allows group of users to exchange their, views/ideas/information, , Ref. Page 359, , Chapter 18: The Internet, , Slide 5/16, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 701 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Electronic Mail, § E-mail is a rapid and productive communication tool, because:, § Faster than paper mail, § Unlike telephone, the persons communicating with, each other need not be available at the same time, § Unlike fax documents, e-mail documents can be, stored in a computer and be easily edited using, editing programs, , Ref. Page 359, , Chapter 18: The Internet, , Slide 6/16, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 702 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , File Transfer Protocol, § Moving a file from a remote computer to ones own, computer is known as downloading, § Moving a file from ones own computer to a remote, computer is known as uploading, § Anonymous ftp site is a computer allowing a user to log in, with a username of anonymous and password that is, user’s e-mail address., § Anonymous ftp sites are called publicly accessible sites, because they can be accessed by any user on the, Internet, , Ref. Page 359, , Chapter 18: The Internet, , Slide 7/16, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 703 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Telnet, Some common uses of telnet service are:, § Using the computing power of the remote computer, § Using a software on the remote computer, § Accessing remote computer’s database or archive, § Logging in to ones own computer from another computer, , Ref. Page 360, , Chapter 18: The Internet, , Slide 8/16, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 704 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Usenet News, § Several usenet news groups exist on the Internet and are, called newsgroups, § In a moderated newsgroup only selected members have the, right to directly post (write) a message to the virtual notice, board. Other members can only read the posted messages, § In a nonmoderated newsgroup any member can directly post a, message to the virtual notice board, § Netiquette (network etiquette) deals with rules of framing, messages that will not hurt others, , Ref. Page 360, , Chapter 18: The Internet, , Slide 9/16, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 705 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , World Wide Web (WWW or W3), § Hypertext documents on the Internet are known as, web pages, § Web pages are created by using a special language, called HyperText Markup Language (HTML), § WWW uses the client-server model and an Internet, Protocol called HyperText Transport Protocol (HTTP) for, interaction among the computers on the Internet, § Any computer on the Internet that uses the HTTP, protocol is called a web server and any computer that, can access that server is called a web client, , (Continued on next slide), , Ref. Page 361, , Chapter 18: The Internet, , Slide 10/16, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 706 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , World Wide Web (WWW or W3), (Continued from previous slide..), , §, , It uses the concept of hypertext for information, storage and retrieval on the Internet, , §, , Hypertext documents enable this by using a series, of links, , §, , Link is a special type of item in a hypertext, document that connects the document to another, document providing more information about the, linked item, , Ref. Page 361, , Chapter 18: The Internet, , Slide 11/16, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 708 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , WWW Browsers, WWW browser is a special software loaded on a web client, computer that normally provides following navigation, facilities to users:, § Does not require a user to remotely log in to a web, server computer or to log out again when done, § Allows user to visit the server computer’s web site and, to access information stored on it by specifying its URL, (Uniform Resource Locator) address, , (Continued on next slide), , Ref. Page 362, , Chapter 18: The Internet, , Slide 13/16, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 709 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , WWW Browsers, (Continued from previous slide..), , § Allows user to create and maintain a personal, hotlist of favorite URL addresses of server, computers that user is likely to frequently visit in, future, § Allows user to download information in various, formats from server computers to user’s own, computer, , Ref. Page 362, , Chapter 18: The Internet, , Slide 14/16, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 710 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Uses of the Internet, Some important current strategic uses of the Internet, are:, § On-line communication, § Software sharing, § Exchange of views on topics of common interest, § Posting of information of general interest, § Product promotion, § Feedback about products, § Customer support service, § On-line journals and magazines, § On-line shopping, § World-wide video conferencing, , Ref. Page 363, , Chapter 18: The Internet, , Slide 15/16, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 711 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Keywords/Phrases, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, , Anonymous ftp site, Browser, Download, Electronic mail (e-mail), File Transfer Protocol (FTP), Hypertext, Hypertext Transport Protocol (HTTP), Internet, Newsgroup, Publicly accessible sites, Standard Generalized Markup Language (SGML), Telnet, Uniform Resource Locator (URL), Upload, Usenet, Web client, Web Server, World Wide Web (WWW), , Ref. Page 364, , Chapter 18: The Internet, , Slide 16/16, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 714 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Multimedia, § Media is something that can be used for presentation of, information., § Two basic ways to present some information are:, § Unimedia presentation: Single media is used to, present information, § Multimedia presentation: More than one media is, used to present information, § Multimedia presentation of any information greatly, enhances the comprehension capability of the user as it, involves use of more of our senses, , Ref. Page 366, , Chapter 19: Multimedia, , Slide 3/16, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 715 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Common Media, § Common media for storage, access, and transmission of, information are:, § Text (alphanumeric characters), § Graphics (line drawings and images), § Animation (moving images), § Audio (sound), § Video (Videographed real-life events), § Multimedia in information technology refers to use of more, than one of these media for information presentation to, users, , Ref. Page 367, , Chapter 19: Multimedia, , Slide 4/16, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 716 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Multimedia Computer System, § Multimedia computer system is a computer having, capability to integrate two or more types of media (text,, graphics, animation, audio, and video), § In general, size for multimedia information is much, larger than plain text information, § Multimedia computer systems require:, § Faster CPU, § Larger storage devices (for storing large data files), § Larger main memory (for large data size), § Good graphics terminals, § I/O devices to play any multimedia, (Continued on next slide), , Ref. Page 367, , Chapter 19: Multimedia, , Slide 5/16, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 717 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Text Media, (Continued from previous slide..), , § Alphanumeric characters are used to present information, in text form. Computers are widely used for text, processing, § Keyboards, OCRs, computer screens, and printers are, some commonly used hardware devices for processing, text media, § Text editing, text searching, hypertext, and text, importing/exporting are some highly desirable features, of a multimedia computer system for better presentation, and use of text information, , Ref. Page 368, , Chapter 19: Multimedia, , Slide 6/16, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 718 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Graphics Media, § Computer graphics deals with generation, representation,, manipulation, and display of pictures (line drawings and, images) with a computer, § Locating devices (such as a mouse, a joystick, or a, stylus), digitizers, scanners, digital cameras, computer, screens with graphics display capability, laser printers,, and plotters are some common hardware devices for, processing graphics media, § Some desirable features of a multimedia computer system, are painting or drawing software, screen capture software,, clip art, graphics importing, and software support for high, resolution, , Ref. Page 369, , Chapter 19: Multimedia, , Slide 7/16, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 719 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Animation Media, § Computer animation deals with generation, sequencing,, and display (at a specified rate) of a set of images, (called frames) to create an effect of visual change or, motion, similar to a movie film (video), § Animation is commonly used in those instances where, videography is not possible or animation can better, illustrate the concept than video, § Animation deals with displaying a sequence of images at, a reasonable speed to create an impression of, movement. For a jerk-free full motion animation, 25 to, 30 frames per second is required, , (Continued on next slide), , Ref. Page 371, , Chapter 19: Multimedia, , Slide 8/16, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 720 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Animation Media, (Continued from previous slide..), , § Scanners, digital cameras, video capture board, interfaced to a video camera or VCR, computer, monitors with image display capability, and graphics, accelerator board are some common hardware devices, for processing animation media, § Some desirable features of a multimedia computer, system with animation facility are animation creation, software, screen capture software, animation clips,, animation file importing, software support for high, resolution, recording and playback capabilities, and, transition effects, , Ref. Page 371, , Chapter 19: Multimedia, , Slide 9/16, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 721 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Virtual Reality, § Virtual reality is a relatively new technology using, which the user can put a pair of goggles and a glove, and tour a three-dimensional world that exists only in, the computer, but appears realistic to the user, , Ref. Page 371, , Chapter 19: Multimedia, , Slide 10/16, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 722 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Audio Media, § Computer audio deals with synthesizing, recording, and, playback of audio or sound with a computer, § Sound board, microphone, speaker, MIDI devices,, sound synthesizer, sound editor and audio mixer are, some commonly used hardware devices for processing, audio media, § Some desirable features of a multimedia computer, system are audio clips, audio file importing, software, support for high quality sound, recording and playback, capabilities, text-to-speech conversion software,, speech-to-text conversion software, and voice, recognition software, , Ref. Page 373, , Chapter 19: Multimedia, , Slide 11/16, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 723 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Video Media, § Computer video deals with recording and display of a, sequence of images at a reasonable speed to create an, impression of movement. Each individual image of, such a sequence is called a frame, § Video camera, video monitor, video board, and video, editor are some of the commonly used hardware, devices for processing video media, § Some desirable features of a multimedia computer, system with video facility are video clips and recording, and playback capabilities, , Ref. Page 374, , Chapter 19: Multimedia, , Slide 12/16, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 725 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Media Center Computer, § There is a growing trend of owning a personal computer, (PC) at home like other electronic equipment, § New terminologies like “infotainment” and “edutainment”, have evolved to refer to computers as versatile tools, § Media center PC provides following functionalities:, § Server as PC, TV, radio, and music system, § Serve as digital photo album and digital library, § Server as Game station and DVD/CD Player, § Allows play, pause, and record of TV programs, § Provides Electronic Programming Guide (EPG), , Ref. Page 376, , Chapter 19: Multimedia, , Slide 14/16, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 727 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Keywords/Phrases, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, , Animation, Audio, Clip art, Cognitive graphics, Computer Aided Design (CAD), Computer Aided Manufacturing (CAM), Frames, Generative graphics, Graphics, Multimedia, Media Center Computer, Pixel, Refresh rate, Text, Transducer, Transition effects, Video, Virtual reality, , Ref. Page 378, , Chapter 19: Multimedia, , Slide 16/16, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 730 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Computer Classification, § Traditionally, computers were classified by their size,, processing speed, and cost, § Based on these factors, computers were classified as, microcomputers, minicomputers, mainframes, and, supercomputers, § However, with rapidly changing technology, this, classification is no more relevant, § Today, computers are classified based on their mode of, use, , Ref. Page 381, , Chapter 20: Classification of Computers, , Slide 3/26, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 732 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Notebook Computers, § Portable computers mainly meant for use by people who, need computing resource wherever they go, § Approximately of the size of an 8½ x 11 inch notebook and, can easily fit inside a briefcase, § Weigh around 2 kg only., § Comfortably placed on ones lap while being used. Hence,, they are also called laptop PC, § Lid with display screen is foldable in a manner that when, not in use it can be folded to flush with keyboard to, convert the system into notebook form, , (Continued on next slide), , Ref. Page 381, , Chapter 20: Classification of Computers, , Slide 5/26, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 733 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Notebook Computers, (Continued from previous slide..), , § Designed to operate with chargeable batteries, § Mostly used for word processing, spreadsheet, computing, data entry, and power point presentations, § Normally run MS-DOS or MS WINDOWS operating, system, § Some manufacturers are also offering models with, GNU/Linux or its distributions, § Each device of laptop is designed to use little power and, remain suspended if not used, , Ref. Page 382, , Chapter 20: Classification of Computers, , Slide 6/26, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 735 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Personal Computers (PCs), § Non-portable, general-purpose computer that fits on a, normal size office table, § Designed to meet personal computing needs of, individuals, § Often used by children and adults for education and, entertainment also, § Generally used by one person at a time, supports, multitasking, § Two common models of PCs are desktop model and, tower model, § Popular OS are MS-DOS, MS-Windows, Windows-NT,, Linux, and UNIX, , Ref. Page 382, , Chapter 20: Classification of Computers, , Slide 8/26, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 737 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Workstations, § Powerful desktop computer designed to meet the, computing needs of engineers, architects, and other, professionals, § Provides greater processing power, larger storage, and, better graphics display facility than PCs, § Commonly used for computer-aided design, multimedia, applications, simulation of complex scientific and, engineering problems, and visualization, § Generally run the UNIX operating system or a variation of, it, § Operating system is generally designed to support, multiuser environment, , Ref. Page 384, , Chapter 20: Classification of Computers, , Slide 10/26, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 738 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Mainframe Systems, § Mainly used by large organizations as banks, insurance, companies, hospitals, railways, etc., § Used for data handling and information processing, requirements, § Used in such environments where a large number of, users need to share a common computing facility, § Oriented to input/output-bound applications, , (Continued on next slide), , Ref. Page 384, , Chapter 20: Classification of Computers, , Slide 11/26, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 739 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Mainframe Systems, (Continued from previous slide..), , § Typically consist of a host computer, front-end, computer, back-end computer, console terminals,, magnetic disk drives, tape drives, magnetic tape, library, user terminals, printers, and plotters, § Typical mainframe system looks like a row of large file, cabinets and needs a large room, § Smaller configuration (slower host and subordinate, computers, lesser storage space, and fewer user, terminals) is often referred to as a minicomputer, system, , Ref. Page 385, , Chapter 20: Classification of Computers, , Slide 12/26, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 740 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Mainframe Computer Systems, SYSTEM ROOM (Entry restricted to system administrators and maintenance staff), Magnetic, Disk Drives, , Magnetic Tape Library, , Back-end, Processor, , Host Processor, , Magnetic, Tape, Drive, Plotter, , Printer, , Console, Front-end, Processor, , User Terminal, , User Terminal, , User Terminal, , USERS ROOM (Entry restricted to authorized users), , Ref. Page 385, , Chapter 20: Classification of Computers, , Slide 13/26, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 741 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Supercomputers, § Most powerful and most expensive computers available at, a given time., § Primarily used for processing complex scientific, applications that require enormous processing power, § Well known supercomputing applications include:, § Analysis of large volumes of seismic data, § Simulation of airflow around an aircraft, § Crash simulation of the design of an automobile, § Solving complex structure engineering problems, § Weather forecasting, , (Continued on next slide), , Ref. Page 386, , Chapter 20: Classification of Computers, , Slide 14/26, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 743 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Parallel Processing Systems, § Use multiprocessing and parallel processing, technologies to solve complex problems faster, § Also known as parallel computers or parallel processing, systems, § Modern supercomputers employ hundreds of, processors and are also known as massively parallel, processors, , Ref. Page 387, , Chapter 20: Classification of Computers, , Slide 16/26, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 745 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Client and Server Computers, § Client-server computing environment has multiple, clients, one/more servers, and a network, § Client is a PC/workstation with user-friendly interface, running client processes that send service requests to, the server, § Server is generally a relatively large computer that, manages a shared resource and provides a set of, shared user services to the clients, § Server runs the server process that services client, requests for use of managed resources, § Network may be a single LAN or WAN or an internet, work, , Ref. Page 388, , Chapter 20: Classification of Computers, , Slide 18/26, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 746 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Client-Server Computing, § Involves splitting an application into tasks and putting, each task on computer where it can be handled most, efficiently, § Computers and operating systems of a client and a, server may be different, § Common for one server to use the services of another, server, and hence act both as client and server, § Concept of client and server computers is purely rolebased and may change dynamically as the role of a, computer changes, , Ref. Page 388, , Chapter 20: Classification of Computers, , Slide 19/26, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 748 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Handheld Computers, § Small computing device that can be used by holding in, hand, also known as palmtop, § Size, weight, and design are such that it can be used, comfortably by holding in hand, § Types of Handheld are:, § Tablet PC: Miniaturized laptop with light weight, screen, flip, handwriting and voice recognition, § PDA/Pocket PC: Acts as PIM device with LCD touch, screen, pen for handwriting recognition, PC based, synchronization, and optionally mobile phone services, § Smartphone: Fully functional mobile phone with, computing power, voice centric, do not have a touch, screen and are smaller than PDA, , Ref. Page 389, , Chapter 20: Classification of Computers, , Slide 21/26, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 750 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Comparison of Different Types of, Computers, Types of, Computers, Client, , Server, , Handheld, , Large, (needs a, large room), , Generally, small (may, be large if it, is also play, the role of a, server, , Generally, large, , Very small, (can be, placed on, ones palm), , Higher, , Highest, , Generally, low, , Generally, high, , Low, , High, , Higher, , Highest, , Generally, low, , Generally, high, , Low, , Low, , High, , Highest, , Higher, , Generally, low, , Generally, high, , Low, , Yes, , Yes, , Generally no, , Generally no, , Yes, , Generally, no, , No, , Note, book, , PC, , Work, station, , Size, , Very, small, (can be, placed on, ones lap), , Small, (can be, placed on, an office, table), , Medium, (slightly, larger than, PC), , Large, (needs a, large room), , Processing, power, , Low, , Low, , High, , Main memory, capacity, , Low, , Low, , Hard disk, storage, capacity, , Low, , Has its own, monitor,, keyboard, and, mouse for, user interface, , Yes, , Key, features, , Mainframe, system, , Super, computer, , (Continued on next slide), , Ref. Page 392, , Chapter 20: Classification of Computers, , Slide 23/26, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 751 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Comparison of Different Types of, Computers, (Continued from previous slide..), Types of, Computers, , Notebook, , PC, , Work, station, , Mainframe, system, , Super, computer, , Client, , Server, , Handheld, , Key, features, Generally, not, available, , Generally not, available, , Medium to, large, screen, monitor, , Generally, not, available, , Small, display, , Generally, multiple, , Multiple, , Multiple, , Generally, single, , Generally, multiple, , Single, , Single, , Generally, single, , Multiple, , Multiple, , Single, , Multiple, , Single, , MS-DOS,, MSWindows,, WindowsNT, Linux,, Unix, , Unix or a, variation of, it, , A variation, of Unix, or, proprietary, , A variation of, Unix, or, proprietary, , MS-DOS,, MSWindows,, WindowsNT,, Linux,, Unix, , Windows, -NT,, Unix or, its, variation,, or, proprieta, ry, , Display, facility, , Foldable, flat screen, small, display, , Medium, size, display, screen, , Single/, multiple, processors, , Single, , Generally, single, , Single/, multiple –, User, oriented, , Single, , MS-DOS,, MSWindows, , Popular, operating, systems, , Large-screen, color monitor, which can, display high, resolution, graphics, , MS-Wndows, Mobile, Palm, OS, Symbian, OS, Linux,, Blackbery OS, , (Continued on next slide), , Ref. Page 392, , Chapter 20: Classification of Computers, , Slide 24/26, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 752 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Comparison of Different Types of, Computers, (Continued from previous slide..), Types of, Computers, Notebook, , Personal, Computer, , Popular, usage, , Word, processing;, Spreadsheet, ; Data, Entry;, Preparing, presentation, materials;, and Making, presentation, s, , Personal, computing, needs of, individuals, either in, their, working, places or at, their, homes; and, Education, and, entertainment of, children, and adults, , Major, vendors, , IBM,, Compaq,, Siemens,, Toshiba, , IBM, Apple,, Compaq,, Dell,, Zenith,, Siemens,, Toshiba,, HewlettPackard, , Key, features, , Ref. Page 392, , Work, station, , Mainframe, system, , Super, computer, , Client, , Server, , Handheld, , Computing, needs of, engineers,, architects,, designers;, Simulation of, complex, scientific and, engineering, problems and, visualizing the, results of, simulation; and, Multimedia, applications, , Data and, information, processing, of I/Obound, applications, , Large, processorbound, application, s like, complex, scientific, simulation, s, , Provide, highly, userfriendly, interface, in a clientserver, computing, environme, nt, , Manage a, shared, resource, and, provide a, set of, shared, user, services, in a, clientserver, computin, g, environm, ent, , Computing,, Personal, Information, Managemen, t (PIM), cell, phone,, digital, camera, , Sun, Microsystems, , IBM, DEC,, HewlettPackard,, Silicon, Graphics, , IBM, DEC, , Cray, IBM,, Silicon, Graphics,, Fujitsu,, Intel, CDAC, , Same as, PC and, Workstati, on, vendors, , Same as, Workstation,, Mainframe, System, &, Supercomputer, vendors, , Chapter 20: Classification of Computers, , Nokia,, Sony,, Motorola,, Dell,, HawlettPackard, , Slide 25/26, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 753 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Key Words/Phrases, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, , Back-end computer, Client computer, Client process, Front-end computer, Host computer, Handheld, I/O-bound application, Laptop PC, Mainframe system, Massively parallel processors, Minicomputer, Notebook computer, Parallel computers, Parallel processing system, Personal Computer (PC), Processor-bound application, Server computer, Server process, Supercomputer, System board, Workstation, , Ref. Page 393, , Chapter 20: Classification of Computers, , Slide 26/26, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 755 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Learning Objectives, In this chapter you will learn about:, § Features of C, § Various constructs and their syntax, § Data types and operators in C, § Control and Loop Structures in C, § Functions in C, § Writing programs in C, , Ref. Page 395, , Chapter 21: Introduction to C Programming Language, , Slide 2/65, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 756 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Features, § Reliable, simple, and easy to use, § Has virtues of high-level programming language with, efficiency of assembly language, § Supports user-defined data types, § Supports modular and structured programming concepts, § Supports a rich library of functions, § Supports pointers with pointer operations, § Supports low-level memory and device access, § Small and concise language, § Standardized by several international standards body, , Ref. Page 395, , Chapter 21: Introduction to C Programming Language, , Slide 3/65, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 759 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Rules for Constructing Integer, Constants, § Must have at least one digit, § + or – sign is optional, § No special characters (other than + and – sign) are, allowed, § Allowable range is:, § -32768 to 32767 for integer and short integer, constants (16 bits storage), § -2147483648 to 2147483647 for long integer, constants (32 bits storage), § Examples are:, , Ref. Page 397, , 8,, , +17,, , -6, , Chapter 21: Introduction to C Programming Language, , Slide 6/65, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 760 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Rules for Constructing Real Constants, in Exponential Form, , § Has two parts – mantissa and exponent - separated by, ‘e’ or ‘E’, § Mantissa part is constructed by the rules for constructing, real constants in fractional form, § Exponent part is constructed by the rules for, constructing integer constants, § Allowable range is -3.4e38 to 3.4e38, § Examples are: 8.6e5,, , Ref. Page 397, , +4.3E-8,, , -0.1e+4, , Chapter 21: Introduction to C Programming Language, , Slide 7/65, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 762 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Variables, § Entity whose value may vary during program, execution, § Has a name and type associated with it, § Variable name specifies programmer given name to, the memory area allocated to a variable, § Variable type specifies the type of values a variable, can contain, § Example: In i = i + 5, i is a variable, , Ref. Page 398, , Chapter 21: Introduction to C Programming Language, , Slide 9/65, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 763 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Rules for Constructing Variables, Names, § Can have 1 to 31 characters, § Only alphabets, digits, and underscore (as in last_name), characters are allowed, § Names are case sensitive (nNum and nNUM are different), § First character must be an alphabet, § Underscore is the only special character allowed, § Keywords cannot be used as variable names, § Examples are: I saving_2007 ArrSum, , Ref. Page 398, , Chapter 21: Introduction to C Programming Language, , Slide 10/65, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 764 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Data Types Used for Variable Type, Declaration, Data, Type, , Minimum Storage, Allocated, , Used for Variables that can contain, , int, , 2 bytes (16 bits), , integer constants in the range, -32768 to 32767, , short, , 2 bytes (16 bits), , integer constants in the range, -32768 to 32767, , long, , 4 bytes (32 bits), , integer constants in the range, -2147483648 to 2147483647, , float, , 4 bytes (32 bits), , real constants with minimum 6 decimal digits, precision, , double, , 8 bytes (64 bits), , real constants with minimum 10 decimal, digits precision, , char, , 1 byte (8 bits), , character constants, , enum, , 2 bytes (16 bits), , Values in the range -32768 to 32767, , void, , No storage allocated, , No value assigned, , Ref. Page 399, , Chapter 21: Introduction to C Programming Language, , Slide 11/65, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 766 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Standard Qualifiers in C, Category, , Modifier, , Description, , Lifetime, , auto, register, static, extern, , Temporary variable, Attempt to store in processor register, fast, access, Permanent, initialized, Permanent, initialized but declaration, elsewhere, , Modifiability, , const, volatile, , Cannot be modified once created, May be modified by factors outside program, , Sign, , signed, unsigned, , + or –, + only, , Size, , short, long, , 16 bits, 32 bits, , Ref. Page 399, , Chapter 21: Introduction to C Programming Language, , Slide 13/65, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 767 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Lifetime and Visibility Scopes of, Variables, , § Lifetime of all variables (except those declared as static) is, same as that of function or statement block it is declared in, § Lifetime of variables declared in global scope and static is, same as that of the program, § Variable is visible and accessible in the function or statement, block it is declared in, § Global variables are accessible from anywhere in program, § Variable name must be unique in its visibility scope, § Local variable has access precedence over global variable of, same name, , Ref. Page 399, , Chapter 21: Introduction to C Programming Language, , Slide 14/65, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 770 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Operators, § Operators in C are categorized into data access,, arithmetic, logical, bitwise, and miscellaneous, § Associativity defines the order of evaluation when, operators of same precedence appear in an expression, § a = b = c = 15, ‘=’ has R → L associativity, § First c = 15, then b = c, then a = b is evaluated, § Precedence defines the order in which calculations, involving two or more operators is performed, § x + y ∗ z , ‘∗’ is performed before ‘+’, , Ref. Page 401, , Chapter 21: Introduction to C Programming Language, , Slide 17/65, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 771 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Arithmetic Operators, Operator, , Meaning with Example, , Associativity, , Precedence, , Arithmetic Operators, L→R, , 4, , L→R, , 4, , L→R, , 3, , L→R, , 3, , L→R, , 3, , x++ means post-increment (increment, the value of x by 1 after using its value);, , L→R, , 1, , ++x means pre-increment (increment the, value of x by 1 before using its value), , R→L, , 2, , +, , Addition;, , -, , Subtraction;, , ∗, , Multiplication;, , /, , Division;, , x+y, x-y, x∗y, x/y, , %, , Remainder (or Modulus);, , ++, , Increment;, , Ref. Page 401, , x%y, , Chapter 21: Introduction to C Programming Language, , Slide 18/65, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 772 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Arithmetic Operators, Associativit, y, , Precedence, , x-- means post-decrement (decrement, the value of x by 1 after using its value);, , L→R, , 1, , --x means pre-decrement (decrement, the value of x by 1 before using its value), , R→L, , 2, , x = y means assign the value of y to x, , R→L, , 14, , +=, , x += 5 means x = x + 5, , R→L, , 14, , -=, , x -= 5 means x = x - 5, , R→L, , 14, , ∗=, , x ∗= 5 means x = x ∗ 5, , R→L, , 14, , /=, , x /= 5 means x = x / 5, , R→L, , 14, , x %= 5 means x = x % 5, , R→L, , 14, , Operator, , Meaning with Example, Arithmetic Operators, , --, , =, , %=, , Ref. Page 401, , Decrement;, , Chapter 21: Introduction to C Programming Language, , Slide 19/65, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 773 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Logical Operators, Operator, , Meaning with Example, , Associativity, , Precedence, , Logical Operators, !, , Reverse the logical value of a single variable;, !x means if the value of x is non-zero, make it, zero; and if it is zero, make it one, , R→L, , 2, , >, , Greater than;, , L→R, , 6, , <, , Less than;, , L→R, , 6, , L→R, , 6, , L→R, , 6, , L→R, , 7, , L→R, , 7, , x>y, , x<y, , >=, , Greater than or equal to;, , <=, , Less than or equal to;, , ==, , Equal to;, , !=, , Not equal to;, , &&, , AND;, x && y means both x and y should be, true (non-zero) for result to be true, , L→R, , 11, , ||, , OR; x || y means either x or y should be true, (non-zero) for result to be true, , L→R, , 12, , z?x:y, , If z is true (non-zero), then the value returned, is x, otherwise the value returned is y, , R→L, , 13, , Ref. Page 402, , x >= y, x <= y, , x == y, x != y, , Chapter 21: Introduction to C Programming Language, , Slide 20/65, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 774 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Bitwise Operators, Operator, , Meaning with Example, , Associativity, , Precedence, , Bitwise Operators, ~, , Complement;, ~x means, All 1s are changed to 0s and 0s to 1s, , R→L, , 2, , &, , AND;, , L→R, , 8, , |, , OR;, , L→R, , 10, , ^, , Exclusive OR;, , L→R, , 9, , x & y means x AND y, x | y means x OR y, x ^ y means x, ⊕, , y, , <<, , Left shift;, x << 4 means shift all bits in x, four places to the left, , L→R, , 5, , >>, , Right shift;, x >> 3 means shift all bits, in x three places to the right, , L→R, , 5, , &=, , x &= y means x = x & y, , R→L, , 14, , |=, , x |= y means x = x | y, , R→L, , 14, , ^=, , x ^= y means x = x ^ y, , R→L, , 14, , <<=, , x <<= 4 means shift all bits in x four places, to the left and assign the result to x, , R→L, , 14, , >>=, , x >>= 3 means shift all bits in x three, places to the right and assign the result to x, , R→L, , 14, , Ref. Page 402, , Chapter 21: Introduction to C Programming Language, , Slide 21/65, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 775 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Data Access Operators, Operator, , Meaning with Example, , Associativity Precedence, , Data Access Operators, x[y], , Access yth element of array x; y starts, from zero and increases monotically up, to one less than declared size of array, , L→R, , 1, , x.y, , Access the member variable y of, structure x, , L→R, , 1, , x –›y, , Access the member variable y of, structure x, , L→R, , 1, , &x, , Access the address of variable x, , R→L, , 2, , *x, , Access the value stored in the storage, location (address) pointed to by pointer, variable x, , R→L, , 2, , Ref. Page 402, , Chapter 21: Introduction to C Programming Language, , Slide 22/65, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 776 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Miscellaneous Operators, Associativit, y, , Precedenc, e, , Evaluates function x with argument y, , L→R, , 1, , Evaluate the size of variable x in, bytes, , R→L, , 2, , sizeof (type), , Evaluate the size of data type “type”, in bytes, , R→L, , 2, , (type) x, , Return the value of x after converting, it from declared data type of variable, x to the new data type “type”, , R→L, , 2, , Sequential operator (x then y), , L→R, , 15, , Operator, , Meaning with Example, Miscellaneous Operators, , x(y), sizeof (x), , x,y, , Ref. Page 403, , Chapter 21: Introduction to C Programming Language, , Slide 23/65, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 777 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Statements, § C program is a combination of statements written, between { and } braces, § Each statement performs a set of operations, § Null statement, represented by “;” or empty {} braces,, does not perform any operation, § A simple statement is terminated by a semicolon “;”, § Compound statements, called statement block, perform, complex operations combining null, simple, and other, block statements, , Ref. Page 403, , Chapter 21: Introduction to C Programming Language, , Slide 24/65, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 780 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Basic Library Functions for I/O, Operations, I/O Library, Functions, , Meanings, , getch(), , Inputs a single character (most recently typed) from standard input (usually, console)., , getche(), , Inputs a single character from console and echoes (displays) it., , getchar(), , Inputs a single character from console and echoes it, but requires Enter key to be, typed after the character., , putchar() or, putch(), , Outputs a single character on console (screen)., , scanf(), , Enables input of formatted data from console (keyboard). Formatted input data, means we can specify the data type expected as input. Format specifiers for, different data types are given in Figure 21.6., , printf(), , Enables obtaining an output in a form specified by programmer (formatted, output). Format specifiers are given in Figure 21.6. Newline character “\n” is, used in printf() to get the output split over separate lines., , gets(), , Enables input of a string from keyboard. Spaces are accepted as part of the input, string, and the input string is terminated when Enter key is hit. Note that although, scanf() enables input of a string of characters, it does not accept multi-word, strings (spaces in-between)., , puts(), , Enables output of a multi-word string, , Ref. Page 404, , Chapter 21: Introduction to C Programming Language, , Slide 27/65, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 782 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Formatted I/O Example, /∗ A portion of C program to illustrate formatted input and output ∗/, int maths, science, english, total;, float percent;, clrscr();, /∗, printf ( “Maths marks = ” );, /∗, scanf ( “%d”, &maths);, /∗, printf ( “\n Science marks = ” ); /∗, scanf ( “%d”, &science);, /∗, printf ( “\n English marks = ” ); /∗, scanf ( “%d”, &english);, /∗, , A C library function to make the screen clear ∗/, Displays “Maths marks = ” ∗/, Accepts entered value and stores in variable “maths” ∗/, Displays “Science marks = ” on next line because of \n ∗/, Accepts entered value and stores in variable “science” ∗/, Displays “English marks = ” on next line because of \n ∗/, Accepts entered value and stores in variable “english” ∗/, , total = maths + science + english;, percent = total/3;, /∗ Calculates percentage and stores in variable “percent” ∗/, printf ( “\n Percentage marks obtained = %f”, percent);, /∗ Displays “Percentage marks obtained = 85.66” on next line, because of \n ∗/, , (Continued on next slide), , Ref. Page 405, , Chapter 21: Introduction to C Programming Language, , Slide 29/65, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 786 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Standard Preprocessor, Directives in C, Preprocessor Directive, , Meaning, , #, , Null directive, , #error message, , Prints message when processed, , #line linenum filename, , Used to update code line number and filename, , #pragma name, , Compiler specific settings, , #include filename, , Includes content of another file, , #define macro/string, , Define a macro or string substitution, , #undef macro, , Removes a macro definition, , #if expr, , Includes following lines if expr is true, , # elif expr, , Includes following lines if expr is true, , #else, , Handles otherwise conditions of #if, , #endif, , Closes #if or #elif block, , #ifdef macro, , Includes following lines if macro is defined, , #ifndef imacro, , Includes following lines if macro is not defined, , #, , String forming operator, , ##, , Token pasting operator, , defined, , same as #ifdef, , Ref. Page 407, , Chapter 21: Introduction to C Programming Language, , Category, , Simple, , File, Macro, , Conditional, , Operators, , Slide 33/65, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 787 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Pointers, § C pointers allow programmers to directly access, memory addresses where variables are stored, § Pointer variable is declared by adding a ‘∗’ symbol, before the variable name while declaring it., § If p is a pointer to a variable (e.g. int i, *p = i;), § Using p means address of the storage location of, the pointed variable, § Using ∗p means value stored in the storage location, of the pointed variable, § Operator ‘&’ is used with a variable to mean variable’s, address, e.g. &i gives address of variable i, , Ref. Page 407, , Chapter 21: Introduction to C Programming Language, , Slide 34/65, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 788 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Illustrating Pointers Concept, , 62, , 1000, , Location address, , i, , Location, contents, , Location, name, , Address of i = 1000, Value of i = 62, int i = 62;, int ∗p;, int j;, p = &i;, j = ∗p;, j = 0;, j = ∗(&i), , Ref. Page 408, , /∗, /∗, /∗, /∗, , p becomes 1000 ∗/, j becomes 62 ∗/, j becomes zero ∗/, j becomes 62 ∗/, , Chapter 21: Introduction to C Programming Language, , Slide 35/65, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 789 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Array, § Collection of fixed number of elements in which all, elements are of the same data type, § Homogeneous, linear, and contiguous memory structure, § Elements can be referred to by using their subscript or, index position that is monotonic in nature, § First element is always denoted by subscript value of 0, (zero), increasing monotonically up to one less than, declared size of array, § Before using an array, its type and dimension must be, declared, § Can also be declared as multi-dimensional such as, Matrix2D[10][10], , Ref. Page 408, , Chapter 21: Introduction to C Programming Language, , Slide 36/65, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 790 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Illustrating Arrays Concept, 1010, , 92, , 1008, , 63, , 1006, , 82, , 1012, , 10.25, , 1008, , 1002, , 66, 84, , 250.00, , 1004, , 155.50, , 1000, , 45, , 1000, , 82.75, , float, , price[4];, , 1004, , int, , Ref. Page 409, , 1005, , marks[6];, , Y, , 1004, , A, , 1003, , B, M, O, B, , 1002, 1001, 1000, char, , city[6];, , Each element, being an int, occupies 2 bytes, , Each element, being a float, occupies 4 bytes, , Each element, being a char, occupies 1 byte, , marks[0] = 45, marks[1] = 84, ., ., ., marks[5] = 92, , price[0] = 82.75, price[1] = 155.50, ., ., ., price[3] = 10.25, , city[0] = ‘B’, city[1] = ‘O’, ., ., ., city[5] = ‘Y’, , (a) An array of, integers having, 6 elements, , (b) An array of, real numbers, having 4 elements, , (c) An array of, characters, having 6 elements, , Chapter 21: Introduction to C Programming Language, , Slide 37/65, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 791 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , String, § One-dimensional array of characters terminated by a null, character (‘\0)’, § Initialized at declaration as, § char, , name[] = “PRADEEP”;, , § Individual elements can be accessed in the same way as, we access array elements such as name[3] = ‘D’, § Strings are used for text processing, § C provides a rich set of string handling library functions, , Ref. Page 410, , Chapter 21: Introduction to C Programming Language, , Slide 38/65, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 792 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Library Functions for String Handling, Library Function, , Used To, , strlen, , Obtain the length of a string, , strlwr, , Convert all characters of a string to lowercase, , strupr, , Convert all characters of a string to uppercase, , strcat, , Concatenate (append) one string at the end of another, , strncat, , Concatenate only first n characters of a string at the end of another, , strcpy, , Copy a string into another, , strncpy, , Copy only the first n characters of a string into another, , strcmp, , Compare two strings, , strncmp, , Compare only first n characters of two strings, , stricmp, , Compare two strings without regard to case, , strnicmp, , Compare only first n characters of two strings without regard to case, , strdup, , Duplicate a string, , strchr, , Find first occurrence of a given character in a string, , strrchr, , Find last occurrence of a given character in a string, , strstr, , Find first occurrence of a given string in another string, , strset, , Set all characters of a string to a given character, , strnset, , Set first n characters of a string to a given character, , strrev, , Reverse a string, , Ref. Page 410, , Chapter 21: Introduction to C Programming Language, , Slide 39/65, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 794 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Structure, § UDT containing a number of data types grouped together, § Constituents data types may or may not be of different, types, § Has continuous memory allocation and its minimum size is, the sum of sizes of its constituent data types, § All elements (member variable) of a structure are publicly, accessible, § Each member variable can be accessed using “.” (dot), operator or pointer (EmpRecord.EmpID or EmpRecord →, EmpID), § Can have a pointer member variable of its own type, which, is useful in crating linked list and similar data structures, , Ref. Page 411, , Chapter 21: Introduction to C Programming Language, , Slide 41/65, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 796 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Union, § UDT referring to same memory location using several data, types, § Mathematical union of all constituent data types, § Each data member begins at the same memory location, § Minimum size of a union variable is the size of its largest, constituent data types, § Each member variable can be accessed using “,” (dot), operator, § Section of memory can be treated as a variable of one type, on one occasion, and of another type on another occasion, , Ref. Page 412, , Chapter 21: Introduction to C Programming Language, , Slide 43/65, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 798 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Difference Between Structure and, Union, § Both group a number of data types together, , § Structure allocates different memory space contiguously, to different data types in the group, § Union allocates the same memory space to different, data types in the group, , Ref. Page 412, , Chapter 21: Introduction to C Programming Language, , Slide 45/65, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 799 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Control Structures, § Control structures (branch statements) are decision, points that control the flow of program execution based, on:, § Some condition test (conditional branch), § Without condition test (unconditional branch), § Ensure execution of other statement/block or cause, skipping of some statement/block, , Ref. Page 413, , Chapter 21: Introduction to C Programming Language, , Slide 46/65, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 800 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Conditional Branch Statements, § if is used to implement simple one-way test. It can be in, one of the following forms:, § if..stmt, § if..stmt1..else..stmt2, § if..stmt1..else..if..stmtn, § switch facilitates multi-way condition test and is very, similar to the third if construct when primary test object, remains same across all condition tests, , Ref. Page 413, , Chapter 21: Introduction to C Programming Language, , Slide 47/65, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 802 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Example of “switch” Construct, Same thing can be written also using if, switch(ch), construct as:, {, case ‘A’:, if (ch == ‘A’ || ch == ‘B’ || ch ==, case ‘B’:, ‘C’), case ‘C’:, printf(“Capital”);, printf(“Capital”);, else if (ch == ‘a’ || ch == ‘b’ || ch, break;, == ‘c’), case ‘a’:, printf(“Small”);, case ‘b’:, else, case ‘c’:, printf(“Not cap or small”);, printf(“Small”);, break;, default:, printf(“Not cap or small”);, }, , Ref. Page 414, , Chapter 21: Introduction to C Programming Language, , Slide 49/65, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 803 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Unconditional Branch Statements, § Break: Causes unconditional exit from for, while, do,, or switch constructs. Control is transferred to, the statement immediately outside the block, in which break appears., § Continue: Causes unconditional transfer to next, iteration in a for, while, or do construct., Control is transferred to the statement, beginning the block in which continue, appears., § Goto label: Causes unconditional transfer to statement, marked with the label within the function., , (Continued on next slide), , Ref. Page 415, , Chapter 21: Introduction to C Programming Language, , Slide 50/65, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 804 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Unconditional Branch Statements, (Continued from previous slide), , § Return [value/variable]: Causes immediate termination of, function in which it appears and, transfers control to the statement, that called the function. Optionally,, it provides a value compatible to, the function’s return data type., , Ref. Page 415, , Chapter 21: Introduction to C Programming Language, , Slide 51/65, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 805 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Loop Structures, § Loop statements are used to repeat the execution of, statement or blocks, § Two types of loop structures are:, § Pretest: Condition is tested before each iteration to, check if loop should occur, § Posttest: Condition is tested after each iteration to, check if loop should continue (at least, a single, iteration occurs), , Ref. Page 415, , Chapter 21: Introduction to C Programming Language, , Slide 52/65, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 806 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Pretest Loop Structures, § for: It has three parts:, § Initializer is executed at start of loop, § Loop condition is tested before iteration to, decide whether to continue or terminate the, loop, § Incrementor is executed at the end of each, iteration, § While: It has a loop condition only that is tested, before each iteration to decide whether to, continue to terminate the loop, , Ref. Page 415, , Chapter 21: Introduction to C Programming Language, , Slide 53/65, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 808 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Posttest Loop Construct, “do…while”, , § It has a loop condition only that is tested after each, iteration to decide whether to continue with next, iteration or terminate the loop, § Example of do…while is:, do {, printf(“i = %d”, i);, i++;, }while (i < 10) ;, , Ref. Page 416, , Chapter 21: Introduction to C Programming Language, , Slide 55/65, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 809 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Functions, § Functions (or subprograms) are building blocks of a, program, § All functions must be declared and defined before use, § Function declaration requires functionname, argument list,, and return type, § Function definition requires coding the body or logic of, function, § Every C program must have a main function. It is the, entry point of the program, , Ref. Page 416, , Chapter 21: Introduction to C Programming Language, , Slide 56/65, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 811 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Sample C Program (Program-1), /∗ Program to accept an integer from console and to display, whether the number is even or odd ∗/, # include <stdio.h>, void main(), {, int number, remainder;, clrscr(); /∗ clears the console screen ∗/, printf (“Enter an integer: ”);, scanf (“%d”, &number);, remainder = number % 2;, if (remainder == 0), printf (“\n The given number is even”);, else, printf (“\n The given number is odd”);, }, , getch();, , Ref. Page 418, , Chapter 21: Introduction to C Programming Language, , Slide 58/65, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 812 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Sample C Program (Program-2), /∗ Program to accept an integer in the range 1 to 7 (both inclusive) from, console and to display the corresponding day (Monday for 1, Tuesday for, 2, Wednesday for 3, and so on). If the entered number is out of range,, the program displays a message saying that ∗/, # include <stdio.h>, # include <conio.h>, #define, #define, #define, #define, #define, #define, #define, #define, , MON printf (“\n, TUE printf (“\n, WED printf (“\n, THU printf (“\n, FRI printf (“\n, SAT printf (“\n, SUN printf (“\n, OTH printf (“\n, , Entered number is 1 hence day is MONDAY”);, Entered number is 2 hence day is TUESDAY”);, Entered number is 3 hence day is WEDNESDAY”);, Entered number is 4 hence day is THURSDAY”);, Entered number is 5 hence day is FRIDAY”);, Entered number is 6 hence day is SATURDAY”);, Entered number is 7 hence day is SUNDAY”);, Entered number is out of range”);, , void main(), {, int day;, clrscr();, printf (“Enter an integer in the range 1 to 7”);, scanf (“%d”, &day);, switch(day), (Continued on next slide), , Ref. Page 418, , Chapter 21: Introduction to C Programming Language, , Slide 59/65, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 814 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Sample C Program (Program-3), /∗ Program to accept the radius of a circle from console and to calculate, and display its area and circumference ∗/, # include <stdio.h>, # include <conio.h>, # define PI 3.1415, void main(), {, float radius, area, circum;, clrscr();, printf (“Enter the radius of the circle: ”);, scanf (“%f”, &radius);, area = PI ∗ radius ∗ radius;, circum = 2 ∗ PI ∗ radius;, printf (“\n Area and circumference of the circle are %f, and %f respectively”, area, circum);, getch();, }, , (Continued on next slide), , Ref. Page 419, , Chapter 21: Introduction to C Programming Language, , Slide 61/65, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 817 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Sample C Program (Program-5), /∗ Program to illustrate use of a user defined function. The program initializes an array of n elements, from 0 to n-1 and then calculates and prints the sum of the array elements. In this example n = 10 ∗/, #include <stdio.h>, #define SIZE 10, int ArrSum(int *p, int n);, {, int s, tot = 0;, for(s = 0; s < n; s++), {, tot += *p;, p++;, }, return tot;, }, int main(), {, int i = 0, sum = 0;, int nArr[SIZE] = {0};, while(i < SIZE), {, nArr[i] = i;, i++, }, sum = ArrSum(nArr, SIZE);, printf("Sum of 0 to 9 = %d\n", sum);, return 0;, }, , Ref. Page 421, , Chapter 21: Introduction to C Programming Language, , Slide 64/65, www.LearnEngineering.in
Page 818 :
www.LearnEngineering.in, , Computer, Computer Fundamentals:, Fundamentals: Pradeep, Pradeep K., K. Sinha, Sinha &, & Priti, Priti Sinha, Sinha, , Key Words/Phrases, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, , Arithmetic operators, Arrays, Assignment operators, Bit-level manipulation, Bitwise operators, Branch statement, Character set, Comment statement, Compound statement, Conditional branch, Conditional, compilation, Constants, Control structures, Format specifiers, Formatted I/O, Function, Keywords, Library functions, Logical operators, Loop structures, , Ref. Page 421, , §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, §, , Macro expansion, Main function, Member element, Null statement, Operator associativity, Operator precedence, Pointer, Posttest loop, Preprocessor directives, Pretest loop, Primitive data types, Reserved words, Simple statement, Statement block, Strings, Structure data type, Unconditional branch, Union data type, User-defined data types, Variable name, Variable type declaration, Variables, , Chapter 21: Introduction to C Programming Language, , Slide 65/65, www.LearnEngineering.in
