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Carbon and its Compounds, , , , Covalent bonds, , The bonds formed by the sharing of electrons are known as covalent bonds., , In covalent bonding, both the atoms (that are participating in the bonding) share electrons,, i.e., the shared electrons belong to both the atoms., , Carbon contains four electrons in its valence shell. It always forms covalent bonds as it is, difficult for it to lose or gain four electrons in order to complete its octet., , Allotropes of Carbon, , Allotropes have different appearances and physical properties, but chemically they are the, same., , There are three allotropes of carbon: diamond, graphite, and buckminsterfullerene., , , , Diamond Graphite Buckminsterfullerene, Amorphous Solid:, , An amorphous solid is a non-crystalline solid with no well-defined ordered structure., Amorphous forms of carbon are: Charcoal, Lampblack or soot; Coal; Coke, , Catenation, , Catenation is the ability of an element to combine with itself through covalent bonds., Carbon shows extensive catenation, giving rise to large number of compounds., , It can form strong single, double, and triple bonds with other atoms of carbons. Carbon can, combine with itself to form chain, branched, and ring structures., , Hydrocarbons, , The compounds made up of only carbon and hydrogen are called hydrocarbons., , The compounds of carbon that contain only single bonds among carbon atoms are called, saturated compounds, , Compounds containing double and triple bonds among carbon atoms are called, unsaturated compounds.
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®oo0oo0o0 e, , oe0ao0€dLc@hUCcmMmhlUr®, , If the hydrocarbons are saturated (like methane and ethane), then they are called alkanes;, if they are unsaturated, then they are alkenes (containing double bonds) and alkynes, (containing triple bonds)., , Aliphatic compounds, , Organic compounds that have a straight chain or branched chain structures., , Example, methane, ethane, propane, 2-methylpropane etc., , They are classified as:, , Alkanes (contain only single bonds): General molecular formula is CnH(2n+2) where, n =, number of carbon atoms., , Alkenes (contain atleast one double bond): General molecular formula is CnH2n where, n =, number of carbon atoms., , Alkynes (contains atleast one triple bond): General molecular formula is CaH2n-2 where, n =, number of carbon atoms., , Alicyclic Saturated Hydrocarbons:, , Saturated organic compounds in which carbon atoms form a closed chain., , Aromatic Compounds, , Organic compounds that contain a ring system and have characteristic odour., , First member is Benzene., , Structural Isomerism, , Organic compounds which have same chemical formula but differ in their structures are, known as isomers and this phenomenon is known as isomerism., , For example, 2-methylpropane is the isomer of n-butane., , Types of structure isomerism:, , Chain/ skeletal/ nuclear isomerism: difference in the structure of the carbon chain that, forms the nucleus of the molecule, , Position isomerism: difference in the position of the functional group, the carbon-carbon, multiple bonds or the substituent group, , Functional group isomerism: presence of different functional groups, , Metamerism: difference in the number of carbon atoms on either side of the functional, group, , Functional groups, , Carbon also forms covalent bonds with oxygen, nitrogen, and sulphur atoms., , Presence of any of these elements in a compound confers specific properties to the, compound., , A group of atoms that imparts specific properties to hydrocarbons is called a functional, group., , Some functional groups in carbon compounds are shown in the given table., , , , lHeteroatom _|Name of functional group|Formula of functional group|, (Chlorine/BrominelHalo- (Chloro/Bromo) -Cl, -Br, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , lAlcohol _OH, b |Aldehyde -CHO, a= Ketone >C=0, |Carboxylic acid +COOH
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NOUS WNP, , Homologous series, A homologous series is a series of carbon compounds having different numbers of carbon, atoms, but containing the same functional group., , Nomenclature of organic compounds, , In IUPAC (International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry) system of, nomenclature, the names are correlated with the structures such that the learner can, deduce the structure from the name., , Before the IUPAC system of nomenclature, organic compounds were assigned trivial or, common names based on their origin or certain properties., , A series of organic compounds containing a particular characteristic group is called a, homologous group., , While naming hydrocarbons, the first part of the name, called the root name, represents the, number of carbon atoms and the last three letters represent the homologous series to, which the alkane belongs., , Alkanes: General formula CnHa2n+z, Suffix-ane, , Alkenes: General formula CnH2n, Suffix -ene, , Alkynes: General formula CnH2n-2, Suffix -yne, , Alkyl] halides: General formula CnH2n+1X, Prefix haloAlcohols: General formula CnH2n+i0H, Suffix -o/, , Aldehydes: General formula CnH2n+1CHO, Suffix -al, , Carboxylic acid: General formula CnH2n+1COOH, Suffix -oic acid, , A systematic name of an organic compound is generally derived by identifying the parent, hydrocarbon and the functional group(s) attached to it., , Functional groups are structural units within organic compounds that are defined by, specific bonding arrangements between specific atoms., , To name a compound:, , Step - I: Select the longest carbon chain., , Step - II: Assign lowest number to the side chain., Step-III: Arrangement of prefixes, , Step-IV: Lowest number for functional group, , The nomenclature of organic compounds is done by using a set of rules. Names of some, common compounds are shown in the given table., , , , Prefix /Suffix, , [Functional group, , xample, , , , 1. Halogen, , , , Prefix: chloro,, bromo, etc., , , , , , H, , H—C —C— C—, , H, , H, , H, , H, , H
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=, =, =, , , , , , , , , , , , H—C—C—C—Br, H H H |, H H j, 2. Alcohol Suffix: -ol H—C Ty), H H H |, H H ', 3. Aldehyde Suffix: -al H—C—C—C=0, H H a, i ot, 4. Ketone Suffix: -one H—C | =", H O H, Hh HO, , 5. Carboxylic acid [Suffix: -oic acid |H--C —-C-——-C-—-OH, , , , , , , , H H, H } H, }6. Double bond ~~ H—C—c=Cc, (alkenes) Nu, H, H, 2 Triple bond 0 H—C —CEC—H, alkynes) Suffix: -yne, H, , , , , , , , , , , , Using the IUPAC of an organic compound, it's structure can be determined. The following, rules help in accomplishing the task:, , Step - I: Identify the root word. It forms the carbon skeleton in the structure., , Step - Il: Write the number of carbon atoms as per the root word and number them from, any end., , Step - III: As per the suffix in the name, ascertain the type of bond present in the, compound. If any multiple bond is present, place it between the carbon atoms as stated in, the IUPAC name., , Step — IV: Place the substituents at the carbon atoms mentioned in the IUPAC name., , Step - V: Place the functional group at the designated carbon atom.
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eoooe, , Step - VI: Complete the valencies of the remaining carbon atoms by attaching hydrogen, atoms., , Chemical properties of carbon compounds, , Combustion reaction:, , Carbon burns in air to form carbon dioxide and hydrocarbons burn in air to give carbon, dioxide and water. Heat and light are also released in these processes., , C+ O27 ~CO2, CHy + O27 ~ CO? + H20+Heat and light, CH3CH20H+02 ~ CO? + H20+Heat and light, , Oxidation reaction:, Combustion of carbon to form carbon dioxide is an oxidation reaction., When alcohols are oxidised, carboxylic acids are obtained., , Alkaline KMnO4, , CH;CH,0H T, , CH;COOH, , , , Addition reaction:, Unsaturated hydrocarbons yield saturated hydrocarbons when reacted with hydrogen in, the presence of catalysts., , Nickel catalyst, , RCH = CHR, H2, , RCH? — CH2R, , , , Substitution reaction:, Under specific conditions, hydrogen atoms present in hydrocarbons can be replaced by, atoms of other elements like chlorine and bromine., , in presence of sunlight, , CH, + Cl2 CH3Cl+HCl, , , , Ethanol (alcohol), CH3CH20H:, Liquid at room temperature, , Itis a good solvent, , Soluble in water in all proportions, Chemical properties of ethanol
