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GEOGRAPHY, (PART-I), , Add : D/108, Sec-2, Noida (U.P.), Pin - 20 1301, Email id : [email protected], Call : 09582948810, 09953007628, 0120-2440265

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CONTENTS, , Sl. No., , TOPICS, , Pg. No., , GENERAL GEOGRAPHY, 1., , Our Universe ........................................................................................... 7, , 2., , Interior Infrastructure of Earth ............................................................ 16, , 3., , Mineral & Rocks .................................................................................... 21, , 4., , Forces Effecting the Earth Movements ............................................... 25, , 5., , Weathering & Erosion. .......................................................................... 27, , 6., , Geogmorphological Landforms ........................................................... 30, , 7., , Volcanoes Earthquakes ......................................................................... 34, , 8., , Erosional and Depositional Landforms............................................... 39, , 9., , Drainage System & Patterns ................................................................ 44, , 10., , Atmosphere. ........................................................................................... 46, , 11., , Climatic Classification ........................................................................... 58, , 12., , Hydrosphere .......................................................................................... 60, , 13., , Soil........................................................................................................... 69, , 14., , Natural Vegetation ................................................................................ 73, , 15., , Population .............................................................................................. 79, , 16., , Human Settlement................................................................................. 84, , 17., , Agriculture. ............................................................................................ 89, , 18., , Fisheries ................................................................................................ 100, , 19., , Minerals ................................................................................................ 103, , 20., , Industries.............................................................................................. 108, , 21., , Energy Resources ................................................................................ 117, , 22., , Transport .............................................................................................. 122

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GENERAL, GEOGRAPHY

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CHRONICLE, , OUR UNIVERSE, , IAS ACADEMY, , A CIVIL SERVICES CHRONICLE INITIATIVE, , helium and heat and light is emitted. Thus a star, is formed. When the hydrogen of a star is depleted,, its outer regions swell and redden. This stage of a, star is called a 'Red Giant'. Our sun will turn into, a 'Red Giant' in 5 billion years. 'Novae Stars' are, stars whose brightness increases suddenly by 10, to 20 magnitudes due to explosion and then the, stars again fade into normal brightness. 'Super, Novae' are stars whose brightness suddenly, increases by more than 20 magnitudes. After the, explosion, the dense core of comparatively smaller, stars is called the 'white dwarf'. The dense core, of the comparatively larger stars is called the, 'Neutron star'. The neutron star rotates at a high, speed emitting radio waves. Such stars are called, 'Pulsar'. 'Black hole' stage of the star occurs when, the ancient star collapses. Gravity becomes so, intense in the hole that nothing escapes, even, light., , CH, IA R, S, O, N, AC I, C, AD L, E, EM, Y, Origin, , The big bang theory explains the origin of our, universe. According to this theory, 15 billion years, ago, cosmic matter was in a compressed state from, which expansion started by a primordial, explosion. The super-dense ball broke to form, galaxies, which again broke to form stars and, finally stars broke to form planets including earth., , Since the outer space is limitless, conventional, units for measuring distances are not suitable., Hence new units as follows are used:, •, Light Year: Distance covered by light in, one year in vacuum at a speed of 3x108, m/s. One light year is equal to 9.46 ×, 1012 kilometers., •, Astronomical Unit: The Mean distance, between the Sun and the Earth (1.49 x, 108 km). One light year is equal to 60,000, AU., •, Cosmic Year: Sun's period of revolution, around the galactic centre (250 million, years). Also called as 'galactic year', •, Parsec: Distance at which the mean radius of the Earth's orbit subtends an, angle of one second of an arc. It is equal, to 3.26 light years., , Galaxies, , These are huge congregation of stars that hold, together by force of gravity e.g. the Milky Way,, Andromeda galaxy, large and small magellanic, cloud, Ursa Minor system, sculptor system, etc., Milky Way or Akashganga is our home galaxy., Our solar system is located in this galaxy., , Stars, , Stars are self luminous bodies that account, for 98 percent of the matter in a galaxy. In the, universe, some stars appear small but emit more, energy than the other stars of the Milky Way., Such stars are called 'Quasars'. When the dense, galactic nucleus is compressing to form a star, this, stage in star formation is called a 'protostar' stage., Due to high temperature hydrogen converts to, , [7], , Constellations, , In the sky at night there are various patterns, formed by different groups of stars. These are, called constellations. Ursa Major or Big Bear is, one such constellation. One of the most easily, recognizable constellations is the small bear or, Saptarishi (Sapta-seven, Rishi-sages). It is a group, of seven stars that forms a part of the large Ursa, Major Constellation., , Solar System, , The sun along with its eight planets, asteroids, and comets comprise the 'solar system'. The planets, are divided into inner or terrestrial planets which, have higher densities e.g. Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars and outer planets which have lower, densities e.g. Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and, Neptune.,
, , The Sun, , •, •, •, , The sun is in the center of the solar, system., It is made up of extremely hot gases particularly hydrogen., The sun is 109 times bigger than the, , Chronicle IAS Academy

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•, , 45,000. 'Ceres' whose length is about 1000km is, the largest one. They revolve around the sun in, the same way as the planets.,
, , Meteors and Meteorites, , The meteors are the remains of comets which, are scattered in the interplanetary space of the, solar system. On contact with the earth's, atmosphere, they burn due to friction. Those, which completely burn out into ash are called, meteors or 'shooting star.' Those which do not, burn completely and strike the earth in the form, of rocks are called 'meteorites'., , CH, IA R, S, O, N, AC I, C, AD L, E, EM, Y, , •, , earth and weighs 2 × 1027 tonnes., The sun is about 150 million km away, from the earth. The light from the sun, reaches earth in about 8 minutes., The glowing surface of the sun is called, 'Photosphere'. Above the 'Photosphere', is red coloured 'Chromosphere'. Beyond, the Chromosphere is the 'Corona', visible during eclipses., The temperature of the photosphere is, about 6000°C and that of the Chromosphere is about 32400°C, and that of the, corona about 2,700,000°C. The core of, the sun has a temperature about 15, million degrees Kelvin. But that tremendous heat is not felt so much by us because despite being our nearest star, it is, far away from us., It takes 250 million years to complete, one revolution round its centre. This, period is called 'Cosmic year'., Sun spots' are dark patches notched on, the surface of the sun. They appear dark, because they are cooler i.e. they have a, temperature of about 1500°C., The 'Aurora Borealis' or northern lights, are multicoloured lights that sweep, across the sky in waves and are visible, in the arctic region. The 'Aurora Australis' or southern lights are similarly, visible near the Antarctica region., , •, , •, , •, , •, ,
, , The Moon, , •, •, , •, , •, , •, ,
, , The moon is the only satellite of the earth., Its size is approximately one-fourth that, of the earth. It has a diameter of 3475, km., Its orbit is elliptical. The maximum distance (apogee) of the moon from the, earth is 406,000 km and the minimum, distance (perigee) is 364,000 km., The moon moves around the earth in, about 27 days. It takes exactly the same, time to complete one spin. As a result,, only one side of the moon is visible to us, on the earth., The bright parts of the moon are mountains whereas the dark patches are lowlying plains., , Asteroids, , Asteroids are a series of very small planets or, fragments of planets lying between the orbit of, Mars and that of Jupiter. They number about, , [8], ,
, , Planetary System, , There are eight planets in our solar system., They are: Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter,, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune. Earlier, Pluto was, considered as a planet. But recently it has lost this, status. All the eight planets of the solar system, move around the sun in fixed paths. These paths, are elongated. They are called orbits. A new planet, 2003 UB 313 has been discovered recently in our, solar system. It is bigger than Pluto and farthest, from the Sun., A. Mercury, , 1. Mercury is the smallest and the nearest, planet to the Sun., 2. It takes only about 88 days to complete, one round along its orbit., 3. It has no atmosphere and no satellite., , 4. Its days are scorching hot and nights are, frigid., B. Venus, , 1. Venus is considered as 'Earth's-twin', because its size and shape are very much, similar to that of the earth., 2. It is also called the 'morning' or 'evening, star'., 3. It is probably the hottest planet because its, atmosphere contains 90-95% of carbon, dioxide. The day and night temperatures, are almost the same., 4. The atmospheric pressure is 100 times that, of the earth., 5. It has no satellite., , Chronicle IAS Academy

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C. The Earth, 1. The earth is the third nearest planet to the, Sun., 2. In size, it is the fifth largest planet., , 3. It has 21 known satellites. Among them, Titan, Phobe, Tethys and Mimas are, important., 4. Its moon, Titan has nitrogen atmosphere, and hydrocarbons, the necessity of life but, no life exists., , CH, IA R, S, O, N, AC I, C, AD L, E, EM, Y, , 3. It is slightly flattened at the poles. That is, why its shape is described as a Geoid., , 270,000 km in diameter., , 4. From the outer space, the earth appears, blue because its two-thirds surface is, covered by water. It is, therefore, called a, blue planet., D. Mars, , 1. It is marked with dormant volcanoes and, deep chasms where once water flowed., , 2. It has a thin atmosphere comprising of, Nitrogen and Argon., 3. Beneath its atmosphere, Mars is barren,, covered with pink soil and boulder., Because of this it is known as 'red planet'., 4. It has two satellites namely 'Phobos' and, 'Demos'., 5. The highest mountain here is Nix Olympia, which is three times higher than Mount, Everest., 6. Recent explorations have thrown light on, the possibility of existence of life here., E. Jupiter, , 1. It is the largest planet of the solar system., , 2. Its atmosphere contains hydrogen, helium,, methane and ammonia., 3. It contains two and a half times the mass, of all the other planets combined., 4. It reflects more than three times the energy, it receives from the sun., , 5. It has the great red spot which is an, enormous eddy in the turbulent cloud cover., It also contains dusty rings and volcanoes., 6. It has 16 satellites like Ganymede, Aayo,, Europa, Callisto etc., F. Saturn, , 1. It is the second largest planet of the solar, system., 2. It has a celebrated rings composed of, thousands of rippling, spiraling bands of, icy rock and dust just 200 feet thick and, , [9], , G. Uranus, , 1. It is the only planet that lies on its side., Hence, one pole or the other faces the sun, as it orbits., , 2. It is one of the coldest planets because of, having an average temperature of -223?C., , 3. Its atmosphere is made of mainly hydrogen., The landscape is barren and there is frozen, methane cloud., 4. There are 9 dark compact rings around the, planet and a corkscrew shaped magnetic, field., 5. It has 15 satellites; prominent ones are, Aerial, Ambrial, Titania, Miranda etc., 6. It rotates north to south., H. Neptune, , 1. It is the most distant planet from the sun., , 2. There are five rings of Neptune. The outer, ring seems to be studded with icy moonlets, while the inner ring appears narrow and, nearly solid., 3. It has 8 satellites like Titron, Merid, N-1,, N-2, N-3 etc., , 4. Its, atmosphere, mostly, contains, hydrocarbon compounds. The atmosphere, appear blue, with quickly changing white, icy methane clouds often suspended high, above an apparent surface., Pluto from Planet to Plutoid, , Pluto, demoted from planet status in 2006,, got a consolation prize - it and other dwarf planets, like it will be called plutoids. Plutoids are celestial, bodies in orbit around the Sun at a distance, greater than that of Neptune that have sufficient, mass for their hydrostatic equilibrium (nearspherical) shape. The two known plutoids are, Pluto and Eris. It is expected that more plutoids, will be named as science progresses and new, discoveries are made., , Chronicle IAS Academy

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Motions of the Earth, , (ii) A difference of 1 hour between two, meridians which are 15°apart., , The earth has two main motions: (i) Rotation, and (ii) Revolution., , (iii) Deflection of ocean currents and winds., , The axis of the earth, which is an imaginary, line, makes an angle of 66½° with its orbital plane., , Revolution: It is earth's motion in its elliptical, orbit around the sun. One revolution is completed, in 365 1/4 days, resulting in one extra day every, fourth year. The year, consisting of 366 days is, called a "leap year" having 29 days in the month, of February., , CH, IA R, S, O, N, AC I, C, AD L, E, EM, Y, , (iv) Rise and fall of tides every day, , The plane formed by the orbit is known as, the orbital plane. The earth receives light from, the sun. Due to the spherical shape of the earth,, only half of it gets light from the sun at a time., The portion facing the sun experiences day while, the other half away from the sun experiences, night. The circle that divides the day from night, on the globe is called the circle of illumination., This circle does not coincide with the axis as you, see in the given figure., Rotation: The earth rotates around its axis., The axis is an imaginary line passing through the, centre of the earth. The earth completes one, rotation in 23 hours, 56 minutes, 4.09 seconds to, be exact. The earth rotates from west to east. The, period of rotation is known as the earthday., , A year is usually divided into summer, winter,, spring and autumn seasons. Seasons change due, to the change in the position of the earth around, the sun., On 21st June, the Northern Hemisphere is, tilted towards the sun. The rays of the sun fall, directly on the Tropic of Cancer. As a result, these, areas receive more heat. The areas near the poles, receive less heat as the rays of the sun are slanting., The North Pole is inclined towards the sun and, the places beyond the Arctic Circle experience, continuous daylight for about six months. Since, a large portion of the Northern Hemisphere is, getting light from the sun, it is summer in the, regions north of the equator. The longest day and, the shortest night at these places occur on 21st, June. At this time in the Southern Hemisphere all, these conditions are reversed. It is winter season, there. The nights are longer than the days. This, position of the earth is called the Summer, Solstice., , Effects of the Rotation of the Earth, (i) Causation of day and night, , [10], , On 22nd December, the Tropic of Capricorn, receives direct rays of the sun as the South Pole, tilts towards it. As the sun's rays fall vertically at, the Tropic of Capricorn (23½° S), a larger portion, of the Southern Hemisphere gets light. Therefore,, , Chronicle IAS Academy

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it is summer in the Southern Hemisphere with, longer days and shorter nights. The reverse, happens in the Northern Hemisphere. This, position of the earth is called the Winter Solstice., , latitudinal angle., , 1. Equator, , 0°, , On 21st March and September 23rd, direct, rays of the sun fall on the equator. At this position,, neither of the poles is tilted towards the sun; so,, the whole earth experiences equal days and equal, nights. This is called an equinox., , 2. Tropic of Cancer, , 23 ½°N, , 3. Tropic of Capricorn, , 23½°S, , On 23rd September, it is autumn season in, the Northern Hemisphere and spring season in, the Southern Hemisphere. The opposite is the case, on 21st March, when it is spring in the Northern, Hemisphere and autumn in the Southern, Hemisphere. Thus, we find that there are days, and nights and changes in the seasons because of, the rotation and revolution of the earth, respectively., , Heat Zones of the Earth, , CH, IA R, S, O, N, AC I, C, AD L, E, EM, Y, , Important Parallels of Latitude, , Some terminologies related to revolution are:, •, Perihelion: The position of the earth, when it is at its nearest point to the sun., The earth reaches its perihelion on about, 3rd January at a distance of about 147, million km from the sun., •, Aphelion: The position of the earth, when it is at its greatest distance from, the sun. The earth reaches its aphelion, on 4th July when it is at a distance of, 152 million km from the sun., •, Perigee: The point in the orbit of the, moon when it is nearest to the earth., •, Apogee: The point in the orbit of the, moon when it is farthest from the earth., , Effects of the Revolution of the Earth, (i) Change of seasons., , (ii) Variation in the lengths of day and night, at different times of the year., (iii) Shifting of wind belts., , (iv) Determination of latitudes., , Lattitude and Longitude, , Latitude:, , Latitude of a place on the earth is the angular, distance of the place from the equator. 1° of, latitude is approximately equal to 111 km., Parallels of Latitude: They are circles drawn, on the globe parallel to the equator. All the places, on a parallel of latitude will have the same, , [11], , 4. Arctic circle, , 66½°N, , 5. Antarctic circle, , 66½°S, , The mid-day sun is exactly overhead at least, once a year on all latitudes in between the Tropic, of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn. This area,, therefore, receives the maximum heat and is called, the Torrid Zone., The mid-day sun never shines overhead on, any latitude beyond the Tropic of Cancer and the, Tropic of Capricorn. The angle of the sun's rays, goes on decreasing towards the poles. As such,, the areas bounded by the Tropic of Cancer and, the Arctic Circle in the Northern Hemisphere, and, the Tropic of Capricorn and the Antarctic Circle, in the Southern Hemisphere, have moderate, temperatures. These are, therefore, called, Temperate Zones., , Areas lying between the Arctic Circle and the, North Pole in the Northern Hemisphere and the, Antarctic Circle and the South Pole in the, Southern Hemisphere, are very cold. It is because, here the sun does not rise much above the, horizon. Therefore, its rays are always slanting., These are, therefore, called Frigid Zones., , Great Circles: Any circle which divides a, globe into hemispheres is a great circle. The, equator is a great circle and Greenwich meridian, together with meridian 180° make another great, circle. The number of great circle is limitless. Great, circle can extend in any direction: east to west,, north to south, north east to south west, and so, on. Great circles are of equal length., Longitude:, , The longitude shows the distance of a point, east or west of the Prime Meridian which is at 0°, and passes through Greenwich, near London. For, each degree of longitude there is a difference of, four minutes in time., , Longitude and Time: The best means of, , Chronicle IAS Academy

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measuring time is by the movement of the earth, and the moon. The sun regularly rises and sets, every day, and naturally, it is the best time-keeper, throughout the world., , Solar Day: It is the time interval between, successive crossings of the sun across the meridian, of the celestial sphere of any fixed place in the, same direction. This is equal to 24 hours., , CH, IA R, S, O, N, AC I, C, AD L, E, EM, Y, , When the Prime Meridian has the sun at the, highest point in the sky, all the places along this, meridian will have mid-day or noon. As the earth, rotates from west to east, those places east of, Greenwich will be ahead of Greenwich time and, those to the west will be behind it. The rate of, difference can be calculated as follows. The earth, rotates 360° in about 24 hours, which means 15°, an hour or 1° in four minutes. Thus, when it is 12, noon at Greenwich, the time at 15° east of, Greenwich will be 15 × 4 = 60 minutes, i.e., 1 hour, ahead of Greenwich time, which means 1 p.m., But at 15° west of Greenwich, the time will be, behind Greenwich time by one hour, i.e., it will, be 11.00 a.m. Similarly, at 180°, it will be midnight, when it is 12 noon at Greenwich., , International Date Line: An imaginary, zigzag line on the globe, approximately along the, 180° meridian of longitude. When a person, crosses this line from East to West, he gains one, day and when he crosses from West to East, he, loses one day., , Greenwich Mean Time: The local time at, Greenwich or any place on the Prime Meridian., All meridians to the east of Greenwich meridian, have sunrise before that meridian. Local times, along these meridians are therefore ahead of, G.M.T. Meridians to the west of Greenwich, meridian have sunrise after this meridian and, therefore their local times are behind G.M.T., Standard Time: A particular meridian of, longitude passing through a country is chosen as, the reference meridian. The local time along this, meridian, calculated with respect to Greenwich, Mean Time in terms of its longitude is taken as, the Standard Time for that country., Why do we have standard time?, , The local times of places which are on different, meridians are bound to differ. For example, it will, be difficult to prepare a time-table for trains which, cross several longitudes. In India, for instance,, there will be a difference of about 1 hour and 45, minutes in the local times of Dwarka in Gujarat, and Dibrugarh in Assam. It is, therefore, necessary, to adopt the local time of some central meridian, of a country as the standard time for the country., , Indian Standard Time: Time along 82 ½° E, meridians, calculated with respect to G.M.T., India, for being a large country, is unusual in, having a single time zone all over the country. It, is 5½ hours ahead of G.M.T., , [12], , Sidereal Day: The period of rotation of the, earth about its axis. This is calculated with respect, to any fixed star. It is 4 minutes less than 24 hours., Solar Year (Tropical year): It is the average, interval between successive returns of the sun in, its apparent motion along the ecliptic to a fixed, position on the celestial sphere of any fixed place., This is equal to 365.24 mean solar days., Sidereal Year: The period of revolution of the, earth around the sun. It is calculated with, reference to any fixed star. It is approximately, equal to 365.26 days., To account for 1/4 of a day in a year, the, leap year system is adopted in the Gregorian, calendar. To account for the excess of 11 minutes, in a year, the centurial year is considered a leap, year only when it is divisible by 400., , Earth in Figures, , 1. Age, , 4,550 million years, , 2. Mass, , 5.976 × 1024 kg., , 3. Mean density, , 5.518 kg/litres., , 4. Total Surface Area, , 510,000,000 km2., , 5. Land Area, , 29.2% of the total, surface area., , 6. Water Area, , 70.8% of the total, surface area., , 7. Highest point, (Mt. Everest), , 8,848 m, , 8. Lowest point, (Dead Sea), , 397 m., , 9. Greatest Ocean Depth 11,033 m, (Mariana Trench), 10. Mean Equatorial, Diameter, 12,756 km., , Chronicle IAS Academy

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11. Equatorial, circumference, , the same everywhere. Elevation of land is, measured from the level of the sea, which is taken, as zero., , 40,076 km., , Theories of Origin of Earth, 1. Buffon-Hypothesis: Based on sun-comet, collision., , CH, IA R, S, O, N, AC I, C, AD L, E, EM, Y, , 2. Kant-Gaseous Mass Theory: Based on, Newton's law of gravitation., , The highest mountain peak Mt. Everest is, 8,848 metres above the sea level. The greatest, depth of 11,022 metres is recorded at Mariana, Trench in the Pacific Ocean., , 3. Chamberlain-Moulton:, Hypothesis., , Planetesimal, , 4. Jeans & Jeffery: Tidal Hypothesis: Based, on sun-giant star attraction., 5. Alfven: Electromagnetic Hypothesis., 6. Russell and, Hypothesis., , Littleton:, , Binary, , Star, , 7. Ross-Gun-Fission Hypothesis: Rotational, and Tidal hypothesis., 8. F. Hoyle: Super Nova Hypothesis., 9. Big Bang Theory: Latest idea., , Major domains of the earth, , Earth is the only planet which has life., Human beings can live here because the life, sustaining elements of land, water and air are, present on the earth. The surface of the earth is a, complex zone in which three main components, of the environment meet, overlap and interact., The solid portion of the earth on which we live is, called the lithosphere. The gaseous layers that, surround the earth, is the atmosphere, where, oxygen, nitrogen, carbon dioxide and other gases, are found. Water covers a very big area of the, earth's surface and this area is called the, hydrosphere. The hydrosphere comprises water, in all its forms, that is, ice, water and water, vapour. The biosphere is the narrow zone where, we find land, water and air together, which, contains all forms of life., A. Lithosphere, , The solid portion of the earth is called the, lithosphere. It comprises the rocks of the earth's, crust and the thin layers of soil that contain, nutrient elements which sustain organisms. There, are two main divisions of the earth's surface. The, large landmasses are known as the continents, and the huge water bodies are called the ocean, basins. All the oceans of the world are connected, with one another. The level of seawater remains, , [13], , Continents, , There are seven major continents. These are, separated by large water bodies. These continents, are - Asia, Europe, Africa, North America, South, America, Australia and Antarctica., , Asia is the largest continent. It covers about, one-third of the total land area of the earth. The, continent lies in the Eastern Hemisphere. The, Tropic of Cancer passes through this continent., Asia is separated from Europe by the Ural, Mountains on the west. The combined landmass, of Europe and Asia is called the Eurasia (Europe, + Asia)., Europe is much smaller than Asia. The, continent lies to the west of Asia. The Arctic Circle, passes through it. It is bound by water bodies on, three sides., , Africa is the second largest continent after, Asia. The Equator or 0° latitude runs almost, through the middle of the continent. A large part, of Africa lies in the Northern Hemisphere. It is, the only continent through which the Tropic of, Cancer, the Equator and the Tropic of Capricorn, pass. The Sahara Desert, the world's largest hot, desert, is located in Africa. The continent is bound, on all sides by oceans and seas. The world's, longest river, the Nile, flows through Africa., , North America is the third largest continent, of the world. It is linked to South America by a, very narrow strip of land called the Isthmus of, Panama. The continent lies completely in the, Northern and Western Hemisphere. Three oceans, surround this continent., , South America lies mostly in the Southern, Hemisphere. The Andes, world's longest, mountain range, runs through its length from, north to south. South America has the world's, largest river, the Amazon., , Australia is the smallest continent that lies, entirely in the Southern Hemisphere. It is, , Chronicle IAS Academy

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surrounded on all sides by the oceans and seas. It, is called an island continent., , The Arctic Ocean is located within the Arctic, Circle and surrounds the North Pole. It is, connected with the Pacific Ocean by a narrow, stretch of shallow water known as Bering Strait., It is bound by northern coasts of North America, and Eurasia., , CH, IA R, S, O, N, AC I, C, AD L, E, EM, Y, , Antarctica, completely in the Southern, Hemisphere, is a huge continent. It is larger than, the combined area of Europe and Australia. The, South Pole lies almost at the centre of this, continent. As it is located in the South Polar, Region, it is permanently covered with thick ice, sheets. There are no permanent human, settlements. Many countries have research, stations in Antarctica. India also has research, stations there. These are named as Maitri and, Dakshin Gangotri., , The Indian Ocean is the only ocean named, after a country, that is, India. The shape of ocean, is almost triangular. In the north, it is bound by, Asia, in the west by Africa and in the east by, Australia., , B. Hydrosphere, , The earth is called the blue planet. More than, 71 per cent of the earth is covered with water, and 29 per cent is with land. Hydrosphere consists, of water in all its forms. As running water in, oceans and rivers and in lakes, ice in glaciers,, underground water and the water vapour in, atmosphere, all comprise the hydrosphere. More, than 97% of the Earth's water is found in the, oceans and is too salty for human use. A large, proportion of the rest of the water is in the form, of ice-sheets and glaciers or under the ground and, a very small percentage is available as fresh water, for human use., Oceans, , Oceans are the major part of hydrosphere., They are all interconnected. The ocean waters are, always moving. The three chief movements of, ocean waters are the waves, the tides and the, ocean currents. The four major oceans are the, Pacific Ocean, the Atlantic Ocean, the Indian, Ocean and the Arctic Ocean, in order of their size., The Pacific Ocean is the largest ocean. It is, spread over one-third of the earth. Mariana, Trench, the deepest part of the earth, lies under, the Pacific Ocean. The Pacific Ocean is circular, in shape. Asia, Australia, North and South, Americas surround it., , The Atlantic Ocean is the second largest, Ocean in the world. It is 'S' shaped. It is flanked, by the North and South Americas on the western, side, and Europe and Africa on the eastern side., The coastline of Atlantic Ocean is highly indented., This irregular and indented coastline provides, ideal location for natural harbours and ports., From the point of view of commerce, it is the, busiest Ocean., , [14], , C. Atmosphere, , The earth is surrounded by a layer of gas, called the atmosphere. This thin blanket of air is, an integral and important aspect of the planet. It, provides us with the air we breathe and protects, us from the harmful effects of sun's rays. The, atmosphere extends up to a height of about 1,600, km., The atmosphere is divided into five layers, based on composition, temperature and other, properties. These layers starting from earth's, surface are the troposphere, the stratosphere, the, mesosphere, the thermosphere and the exosphere., The atmosphere is composed mainly of, nitrogen and oxygen, which make up about 99, per cent of clean, dry air. Nitrogen 78 per cent,, oxygen 21 per cent and other gases like carbon, dioxide, argon and others comprise 1% by volume., The density of the atmosphere varies with, height. It is maximum at the sea level and, decreases rapidly as we go up. The climbers, experience problems in breathing due to this, decrease in the density of air. The temperature, also decreases as we go upwards., The atmosphere exerts pressure on the earth., This varies from place to place. Some areas, experience high pressure and some areas low, pressure. Air moves from high pressure to low, pressure. Moving air is known as wind., D. Biosphere, , The biosphere is the narrow zone of contact, between the land, water and air. It is in this zone, that life exists. All the living organisms including, humans are linked to each other and to the, biosphere for survival. The organisms in the, biosphere may broadly be divided into the plant, kingdom and the animal kingdom., , Chronicle IAS Academy

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12. A solar day is greater than a sidereal day, by 4 minutes., 13. Each degree of latitude is equals to 111 km., 14. A person crossing International Date Line, from the East to West loses one day., 15. Mercury is the nearest planet to Sun., 16. Venus is the nearest planet to Earth., 17. Venus is the hottest planet; its atmosphere, contains 97% CO2., 18. Jupiter is the biggest planet., 19. Venus is the brightest planet., 20. Earth is the blue planet., 21. Mars is the Red planet., 22. Venus is the Morning and Evening Star., 23. Pluto is the double planet., 24. Saturn and Uranus are known as the, planets with rings., 25. Mercury has the maximum diurnal range, of temperature., 26. Saturn has maximum no. of satellites., 27. Pluto has the most eccentric orbit., 28. Jupiter is the fastest rotating planet., 29. Venus is the slowest rotating planet., 30. Venus has the same period of rotation as, revolution., 31. The length of the day is nearly same on the, planet Mars as that of the Earth., 32. Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune are, the Jovian planets., 33. The angle of inclination of Mars is nearly, same as that of Earth., 34. Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune are, the outer planet., 35. Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars are the, inner planets., , CH, IA R, S, O, N, AC I, C, AD L, E, EM, Y, , The three domains of the earth interact with, each other and affect each other in some way or, the other. For example, cutting of forests for, fulfilling our needs of wood, or clearing land for, agriculture may lead to fast removal of soil from, slopes. Similarly earth's surface may be changed, due to natural calamities like earthquakes or, tsunamis., , Discharge of waste material into lakes and, rivers makes the water unsuitable for human use., It also damages other forms of life. Emission from, industries, thermal power plants and vehicles,, pollute the air. Carbon dioxide (CO2) is an, important constituent of air. But increase in the, amount of CO2 leads to increase in global, temperatures. This is termed as global warming., There is thus, a need to limit the use of resources, of the earth to maintain the balance of nature, between the domains of the lithosphere, the, atmosphere and the hydrosphere., , Points to Remember, , 1. Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars are, known as' Inner Planets' whereas Jupiter,, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune are known, as "Outer plants"., 2. Planets bigger than the earth are Jupiter,, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune., 3. Earth and Venus have almost same size,, hence these two are known as' Twin, planets", 4. All planets rotate in the same direction in, which they revolve except Venus and, Uranus., 5. Saturn is surrounded by three luminous,, concentric rings., 6. Earth has the maximum density of 5.52 in, the solar system while the Saturn has the, least density of 0.69., 7. According to gravity Jupiter stands first, followed by Neptune, Uranus, Saturn and, Earth., 8. Mercury and Venus have no satellite., 9. Neptune's atmosphere has poisonous gases, like methane, ammonia, etc., 10. Comets revolve around the Sun and when, broken are converted into "Meteors"., 11. Earth is spherical in shape with, compression at the poles and a bulge at, the equator. Hence earth is an oblate, spheroid or called a Geoid., , [15], , 38., 39., 40., 41., 42., 43., , 44., , 36. Venus rotates from East to West., 37. Uranus rotates from North to South., Mercury is the fastest revolving planet., Pluto is the slowest revolving planet., Planet revolves around the sun in Anticlockwise direction., "Hydra" is the largest constellation., The nearest galaxy. "Andromeda" is 22,, 00,000 Light years away., Existence of galaxies beyond Milky Way, was first demonstrated by Edwin Hubble., Galaxies are also called "Islands of universe", , Chronicle IAS Academy

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INTERIOR INFRASTRUCTURE, OF THE EARTH, , IAS ACADEMY, , A CIVIL SERVICES CHRONICLE INITIATIVE, , Scientists have estimated the values of, temperature, pressure and the density of, materials at different depths., , CH, IA R, S, O, N, AC I, C, AD L, E, EM, Y, , The interior of the earth can be understood, only by indirect evidences as no one has reached, the interior of the earth. The surface, configuration of the earth is largely a product of, the processes operating in its interior. A proper, understanding of the physiographic character, of a region remains incomplete unless the effects, of both endogenic processes as well as exogenic, processes are studied., , CHRONICLE, , Sources of information about the interior, , The earth’s radius is 6,370 km. Reaching the, centre of the earth and make observations or, collect samples of the materials is almost, impossible. Under such conditions, most of our, knowledge about the interior of the earth is, largely based on analogies and inferences. Yet,, a part of the information is obtained through, direct observations and analysis of materials., Direct Sources, , The readily available solid earth material is, surface rock we get from mining areas. Besides, mining, scientists world over are working on two, major projects such as “Deep Ocean Drilling, Project” and “Integrated Ocean Drilling, Project”. The deepest drill at Kola, in Arctic, Ocean, has so far reached a depth of 12 km., These drilling projects have provided large, volume of information through the analysis of, materials collected at different depths. Volcanic, eruption forms another source of obtaining, direct information. As and when the magma, comes out to the surface of the earth during, volcanic eruption it becomes available for, laboratory analysis., Indirect Sources, , Analysis of properties of rocks and magma, indirectly provides information about the, interior. Through mining we know that, temperature and pressure increase with the, increasing depth. It is also known that the density, of the material also increases with depth., , [16], , Meteor is another source of information about, the interior of the earth. However, the material,, that becomes available for analysis from meteors,, is not from the interior of the earth. It is only, similar to that of the earth. Meteors are solid, bodies developed out of materials same as, or, similar to, earth. So, by analogy meteors provide, valuable information about the earth’s interior., Other indirect sources include gravitation,, magnetic field and seismic activity. The, gravitational force is greater near the poles and, less at the equator. It also differs according to the, mass of material. Thus the uneven distribution of, material within the earth influences its value. The, readings of the gravity, may, at places differ from, the expected values. Such a difference is called, gravity anomaly. Gravity anomalies give us, information about the distribution of mass of the, material in the crust of the earth., Seismic/Earthquake Waves, , The study of seismic waves provides a, complete picture of the layered interior. An, earthquake in simple words is shaking of the, earth. It is a natural event. It is caused due to, release of energy, which generates waves that, travel in all directions. The energy waves, travelling in different directions reach the surface., Earthquake waves are basically of two typesbody waves and surface waves. Body waves are, generated due to the release of energy at the focus, and move in all directions travelling through the, body of the earth. They interact with the surface, rocks and generate new set of waves called, surface waves. These waves move along the, surface. The velocity of waves changes as they, travel through materials with different densities., Denser the material, higher is the velocity., There are two types of body waves. They, are called P and S-waves. P-waves move faster, , Chronicle IAS Academy

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105° and 140° from epicentre is identified as the, shadow zone of P-waves. However, the entire, zone beyond 105° does not receive S-waves. Thus, shadow zone of S-wave is much larger than that, of the P-waves. The shadow zone of P-waves, appears as a band around the earth between 105°, and 140° away from the epicentre whereas that, of S-wave is a continuous zone., , CH, IA R, S, O, N, AC I, C, AD L, E, EM, Y, , and are the first to arrive at the surface. These are, also called ‘primary waves’. The P-waves are, similar to sound waves. They travel through all, materials gaseous, liquid and solid. S-waves arrive, at the surface with some time lag. These are called, secondary waves. S-waves can travel only, through solid materials. This characteristic of the, S-waves has helped scientists to understand the, structure of the interior of the earth., Different waves travel in different manners., P-waves vibrate parallel to the direction of the, wave. This exerts pressure on the material in the, direction of the propagation. As a result, it, creates density differences in the material leading, to stretching and squeezing of the material., Other waves vibrate perpendicular to the, direction of propagation. The direction of, vibrations of S-waves is perpendicular to the, wave direction in the vertical plane. Hence, they, create troughs and crests in the material medium, through which they pass. Surface waves are, considered to be the most damaging waves., Shadow Zone, , Earthquake waves are recorded in, seismographs located at far off locations., However, there are certain areas where the, waves are not reported. Such a, , zone, where the waves are not recorded, is called, the ‘shadow zone’. The study reveals that for, each earthquake, there exists an altogether, different shadow zone. Given figure shows the, shadow zones of P and S-waves., , It was observed that seismographs, located, within 105° from the epicentre, recorded the, arrival of both P and S-waves. But, beyond 140°, from epicentre, they record the arrival of P-waves,, but not that of S-waves. Thus, a zone between, , [17], , Structure of the interior, , Just like an onion, the earth is made up of, several concentric layers with one inside another., The important zones include:, , The crust: The outer layer of the earth is, known as the crust. It comprises about 0.5% of, the earth’s body. Its thickness ranges from 5 to 40, km. The crust is thicker beneath the continents, than beneath the oceans. It is made up of two, layers: upper lighter layer (density=2.7 g/cc), called the sial (silica + aluminium) and a lower, denser layer (density=3.0 g/cc) called sima (silica, + magnesium). The average density of the earth’s, surface is less than 3 gm/c.c. The upper layer of, the crust is mainly com- posed of crystalline, igneous and meta- morphic rocks, acidic in, nature. The lower layer of the crust contains, basaltic & ultra-basic rocks. Conrad discontinuity, separates the outer and the inner crusts., The mantle: Below the crust of the earth is, a thick, , layer called mantle. This layer extends upto a, depth of 2900 km. The mantle consists, predominantly of solid olivine rocks made up of, silicates of magnesium and iron and displaying, plastic properties. Its average density is 56.8. This, layer is separated from the crust by Mohorovicic, Discontinu- ity. The outer and the inner mantle, are separated by another discontinuity named, Repetti discontinuity., , The core: Beyond a depth of 2900 km lies, the core of the earth. It is named as barysphere, , Chronicle IAS Academy

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the upper mantle there is a soft layer in which, the mantle rock is at the temperature close to, the melting point. It sets in at an average depth, of about 80 km which is well below the base of, the continental crust. This layer is called as, “Aesthenosphere” and the rigid layer above it, is called as “lithosphere”. The aesthenosphere, extends to a depth of about 400 km., , CH, IA R, S, O, N, AC I, C, AD L, E, EM, Y, , and also nife (nickel and ferrous). Average, thickness is 4671 kms. Average density is 17.2., By volume it constitutes 17% of the earth’s body., The temperature of the core is about 200°c. The, core is believed to be a reason for the earth’s, magnetism. It is separated from the mantle by, Gutenburg-Wiechert Discontinuity., Lithosphere & Aesthenosphere: Beneath, , Composition and properties of different layers of the earth, , Name of the, layer, , A.(i) Crust, , (ii) Inner part of, lithosphere, , B, , Chemical, Composition, , Average, Thickness, (km), , Density, (g cm-3), , Physical Properties, , Sial, , 6 to 45, , 2.2 to 2.9, , Solid part of, lithosphere; partly, molten under the, continents., , Outer silicate, layer, Basaltic, , 45 to 100, , The solid crust and, upper mantle, , 50 to 400, , It transmits both Sand P-wave but with, reduced velocities., , Aesthenosphere, , C.(i) Upper Mantle, (mainly under, oceans), , Sima (Peridotite, iron- magnesiumrich silicate rock), , 100 to 1700, , 3.1 to 4.75, , Slightly solid and, slightly plastic, material close to, melting point., , Lower Mantle, , Wholly Sima, (OlivineUltrabasic rocks), , 1700 to2900, , 4.75 to 5.6, , Transition zone of, mixed metals and, silicate, , D.(i), , Outer core, , Nife, , 2900 to 4980, , 9.9 - 12.3, , Liquid or in a plastic, state. Fe, Ni and S, mixture., , (ii), , Inner core, , Barysphere (heavy 4980 to 6400, metallic rocks), , 13.5, , Iron and nickel. Solid, and rigid due to, tremendous overlying, pressure., , (ii), , Temperature: In upper 100 km the, increase in temperature is estimated at the rate, of 12°C per km descend. In the next 300 km,, the increase is of 2°C per km and below that, the rate of increase is 1°C per km. In the core, the temperature is about 2000°C. But at the, same time there is a huge pressure of overlying, layers of the earth’s interior. So even under, extremely high temperature towards the, central part of the earth the liquid nature of, the earth core has acquired the properties of a, solid and is probably in a plastic state., , [18], , Composition of the Earth, 1. Iron, , 35%, , 2. Oxygen, , 30%, , 3. Silicon, , 15%, , 4. Magnesium, , 13%, , 5. Nickel, , 2.4%, , 6. Sulphur, , 1.9%, , 7. Calcium, , 1.1%, , 8. Aluminium, , 1.1%, , Chronicle IAS Academy

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Continental drift, , Major plates of the world are:, 1., 2., 3., 4., 5., 6., , American plate, Pacific plate, Antarctic plate, African plate, European plate and, Australian plate., , CH, IA R, S, O, N, AC I, C, AD L, E, EM, Y, , The theory of continental drift, expounded, by Alfred Wegener in 1915, holds that portions, of the original continent which comprised the, entire landmass of the world underwent a series, of horizontal displacement before the present, continents were formed., , called “aesthenosphere” and carry the, continents and oceans on their back. The edges, of the plates are designed as boundaries and, margins, where movements occur., , According to this theory, about 280 million, years ago, the entire landmass formed one super, continent, called Pangea. According to, Wegener, after the breaking of the super, continent pangae, the movement of the, continents took place in two directions- one, towards the equator due to centrifugal force of, the earth which gave rise to fold mountains like, the Himalayas, the alps, etc. and another towards, west due to tidal force of sun and the moon which, gave rise to Andes and Rockies., A glance at the world map shows that S., America particularly Brazil can be fitted into the, Gulf of Guinea of Africa; Antarctica can roughly, be fitted into S. Australian coast and S.E-African, coast. Similarly NW-Australian coast and EIndian coast are liable to fit. After the drifts some, water bodies developed between them. Geological, evidences prove that S. America and Africa were, probably joined together till the upper Triassic., Biological history of certain animals like, marsupials and placental mammals also throw, significant light on the continental drift., , Plate Tectonics, , Some minor plates are:, 1., 2., 3., 4., 5., , Caribbean plate., Cocas plate, Nazca plate, Juan de Fuca plate, Philippine plate, etc., , All these plates are in constant motion both, in relation to each other and with regard to the, earth’s motion. Some movements are responsible, for the volcanic activities, seismic and other plate, disturbances on the margins of the plates., Types of movements of plates, , A. Convergence: When the oceanic, lithosphere moves towards the continental, lithosphere, due to its thickness the continental, crust is unable to go down and it is the oceanic, crust which is involved in subduction. The, downwent plate of the oceanic crust melts and, produces magma. This magma rises, , slowly and emerges as intrusive igneous rock in, the form of volcanic mountains on the, continental crust. Thus origin of volcanic, mountains like Andes takes place., , Plate tectonics deals with rock structures, which are in the form of the plates and it is not, only the continents which are in motion but the, oceans as well. These plates include not only the, earth’s upper crust but also the part of denser, mantle below. They have an average thickness, of 100 km. They float on the plastic upper mantle, , [19], , Chronicle IAS Academy

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When the two oceanic lithospheres lie on, both side of subduction, then either of the two, plates may subduct. The subducted part melts, and the magma rises above the oceanic surface, and volcanic islands are formed in arc form like, Aleutian island, Kuril Island, Ryuku Island, etc., , CH, IA R, S, O, N, AC I, C, AD L, E, EM, Y, , When the continental lithosphere lies on, both sides of subduction, the sediments get, scrapped off the descending plate margin. In the, next stage the two continents collide, squeezing, the sediment mass and throwing it into, complicated fold and high alpine ranges like, Himalayas and Alps are formed., , also termed as “ocean floor spreading”. Deep, beneath the continental plate a column of heated, mantle rock begins to rise and reach the plate, above, causing the plate to fracture, which is, called “continental rupture”. At first block, mountains are formed. Next a long narrow valley, called “rift valley” appears. The widening crack, in its center is continuously filled in with magma, rising from the mantle below. The magma, solidifies to form new crust and also a new, oceanic crust and lithosphere., , B. Divergence/continental rupturing: It is, , C. Parallel movements of plates: Parallel, plates, as they slide past each other along a, common boundary, do not create a new crust, or destroy the old one but they produce, “transform faults” which are fractures in rock, formation. Fractures imply displacement of, rocks. As the plates continue to move, the locked, rocks snap. They shift violently back to, equilibrium like a bent - stick breaking. This, violent shift causes earth - quakes., ,


, , [20], , Chronicle IAS Academy

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MINERALS & ROCKS, , CHRONICLE, IAS ACADEMY, , A CIVIL SERVICES CHRONICLE INITIATIVE, , magnesium, iron and silica. Pyroxene forms 10, per cent of the earth’s crust. It is commonly found, in meteorites. It is in green or black colour., •, Amphibole, , CH, IA R, S, O, N, AC I, C, AD L, E, EM, Y, Minerals, , A mineral is a naturally occurring substance, that is solid and stable at room temperature,, representable by a chemical formula, usually, abiogenic, and has an ordered atomic structure, Mineral are divided as follows:, A. Metallic Minerals, , These minerals contain metal content and, can be sub-divided into three types:, (i) Precious metals: gold, silver, platinum etc., , (ii) Ferrous metals: iron and other metals often, mixed with iron to form various kinds of, steel., , (iii) Non-ferrous metals: include metals like, copper, lead, zinc, tin, aluminium etc., B. Non-Metallic Minerals, , These minerals do not contain metal content., Sulphur, phosphates and nitrates are examples, of non-metallic minerals. Cement is a mixture of, non-metallic minerals., Some Major Minerals and Their Characteristics, , •, , Feldspar, , Silicon and oxygen are common elements in, all types of feldspar and sodium, potassium,, calcium, aluminium etc. are found in specific, feldspar variety. Half of the earth’s crust is, composed of feldspar. It has cream to salmon, pink colour. It is used in ceramics industries., •, , Quartz, , It is one of the most important components, of sand and granite. It consists of silica. It is a, hard mineral virtually insoluble in water. It is, white or colourless and used in radio and radar., It is one of the most important components of, granite., •, Pyroxene, Pyroxene consists of calcium, aluminum,, , [21], , Aluminium, calcium, silica, iron, magnesium, are the major elements of amphiboles. They form, 7 per cent of the earth’s crust. It is in green or, black colour and is used in asbestos industry., Hornblende is another form of amphiboles., •, Mica, It comprises of potassium, aluminium,, magnesium, iron, silica etc. It forms 4% of the, earth’s crust. Commonly found in igneous and, metamorphic rocks, it is used in electrical, instruments., •, Olivine, , Magnesium, iron and silica are major, elements of olivine. It is used in jewellery. It is, usually a greenish crystal, often found in basaltic, rocks. Other minerals like chlorite, calcite,, magnetite, haematite, bauxite and barite are also, present in some quantities in the rocks., , Rocks, , The earth’s crust is composed of rocks. A, rock is an aggregate of one or more minerals., Rock may be hard or soft and in varied colours., For example, granite is hard, sandstone is soft., Gabbro is black and quartzite can be milky white., Rocks do not have definite composition of, mineral constituents. Feldspar and quartz are the, most common minerals found in rocks., , The crustal rocks are classified on the basis, of mode of formation, physical and chemical, properties, location etc. On the basis of mode of, formation the rocks are divided into three, categories (i) igneous rocks (ii) sedimentary, rocks (iii) metamorphic rocks., A) Igneous rocks, As igneous rocks form out of magma and, lava from the interior of the earth, they are, known as primary rocks. The igneous rocks are, , Chronicle IAS Academy

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formed when magma cools and solidifies. When, magma in its upward movement cools and turns, into solid form it is called igneous rock. The, process of cooling and solidification can happen, in the earth’s crust or on the surface of the earth., , B) Sedimentary rocks, The word ‘sedimentary’ is derived from the, Latin word sedimentum, which means settling., Rocks (igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic), of the earth’s surface are exposed to, denudational agents, and are broken up into, various sizes of fragments. Such fragments are, transported by different exogenous agencies and, deposited. These deposits through compaction, turn into rocks. This process is called lithification., In many sedimentary rocks, the layers of, deposits retain their characteristics even after, lithification. Hence, we see a number of layers, of varying thickness in sedimentary rocks like, sandstone, shale etc., , CH, IA R, S, O, N, AC I, C, AD L, E, EM, Y, , Igneous rocks are characterized on the basis, of texture. Texture depends upon size and, arrangement of grains or other physical, conditions of the materials. If molten material is, cooled slowly at great depths, mineral grains may, be very large. Sudden cooling (at the surface), results in small and smooth grains. Intermediate, conditions of cooling would result in, intermediate sizes of grains making up igneous, rocks. Granite, gabbro, pegmatite, basalt,, volcanic breccia and tuff are some of the, examples of igneous rocks., , (ii) Extrusive igneous rocks are formed due, to cooling and solidification of hot and molten, lava at the earth’s surface e.g. Basalt, Gabbro,, obsidian., , Igneous rocks are roughly hard rocks and, water percolates with great difficulty. They do, not have strata and are less affected by chemical, weathering. They don’t contain fossils. The, number of joints increases upwards. They are, mostly associated with volcanic activity., They are classified on several grounds as, mentioned below:, (a) On the basis of silica content:, , (i) Acidic igneous rocks have more silica e.g., Granites, (ii) Basic igneous rocks have less silica e.g., Gabbro., (b) On the basis of chemistry, mineralogical composition:, , and, , (i) Felsic igneous rock (feldspar is dominant), , (ii) Mafic igneous rock (magnesium and ferrous, are dominant), , (iii) Ultra mafic igneous rock (Peridotite and, dunite are dominant)., (c) On the mode of occurrence:, , (i) Intrusive igneous rocks— they are, cooled and solidified below the surface of the, earth. They are further divided into plutonic and, hypabyssal igneous rocks. Plutonic rocks cool, deep beneath the earth e.g. Granite. Hypabyssal, rocks cool just beneath the earth surface e.g., Batholith, laccolith, phacolith, lapolith, sills,, dykes, etc., , [22], , Depending upon the mode of formation,, sedimentary rocks are classified into three major, groups: (i) mechanically formed - e.g. sandstone,, conglomerate, shale, loess etc. (ii) organically, formed - e.g. chalk, limestone, coal etc. (iii), chemically formed – e.g. chert, halite, potash etc., These rocks are formed due to aggregation, and compaction of sediments. These rocks, contain fossils of plants and animals. They cover, 75 percent of surface area of the globe. However, they form only 5 percent of the volume of earth’s, crust. They contain several layers or strata but, these are seldom crystalline rocks. They are, seldom found in original and horizontal manner., They may be well consolidated, poorly, consolidated and even unconsolidated. They are, characterized by different sizes of joints. Most, sedimentary rocks are porous and permeable., The formation of sedimentary rocks takes place, in three stages:, •, , •, , •, , Transportation: after weathering and, erosion the fragments of parental rocks, are transported by the agents of erosion, like stream, wind, air, etc., Deposition: transported materials are, deposited in sea, lakes, etc. The particles, are deposited in parallel layers and their, process of layer formation is called, “stratification”., Consolidation: when the number of layer, , Chronicle IAS Academy

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is large, the weight of upper layer begins to affect, the lower layers and the further compression, solidifies the sediments into rocks., They are classified under different schemes:, , CH, IA R, S, O, N, AC I, C, AD L, E, EM, Y, , 1. On the basis of nature of sediments:, , In regional metamorphism, rocks undergo, recrystallization due to deformation caused by, tectonic shearing together with high temperature, or pressure or both. In the process of, metamorphism in some rocks grains or minerals, get arranged in layers or lines. Such an, arrangement of minerals or grains in, metamorphic rocks is called foliation or lineation., , (a) Mechanically formed or clastic rocks e.g., Sandstones. Conglomerates, clay rock,, shale, loess., , (b) Chemically formed sedimentary rocks e.g., gypsum, salt rock., (c) Organically formed sedimentary rocks e.g., Limestone, dolomites, coal, peats, etc., 2. On the basis of transporting agents:, , (i) Argillaceous or aqueous rocks: (a) Marine, rocks, (b) Lacustrine rocks, (c) Riverine, rocks, (ii) Aeolian rocks e.g. Loess., , (iii) Glacial sedimentary rocks e.g. Till, moraine., C). Metamorphic rocks, , The word metamorphic means ‘change of, form’. These rocks form under the action of, pressure, volume and temperature (PVT), changes. Metamorphism occurs when rocks are, forced down to earth’s interior by tectonic, processes or when molten magma rising through, the crust comes in contact with the crustal rocks, or the underlying rocks are subjected to great, amounts of pressure by overlying rocks., Metamorphism is a process by which already, consolidated rocks undergo recrystallization and, reorganization of materials within original rocks., Mechanical disruption and reorganization, of the original minerals within rocks due to, breaking and crushing without any appreciable, chemical changes is called dynamic, metamorphism. The materials of rocks, chemically alter and recrystallize due to thermal, metamorphism. There are two types of thermal, metamorphism - contact metamorphism and, regional metamorphism., In contact metamorphism the rocks come in, contact with hot intruding magma and lava and, the rock materials recrystallize under high, temperatures. Quite often new materials form, out of magma or lava are added to the rocks., , [23], , Sometimes minerals or materials of different, groups are arranged into alternating thin to thick, layers appearing in light and dark shades. Such, a structure in metamorphic rocks is called, banding and rocks displaying banding are called, banded rocks. Types of metamorphic rocks, depend upon original rocks that were subjected, to metamorphism., , Metamorphic rocks undergo complete, alteration in the appearance of pre-existing rocks, due to change in mineral composition and texture, through temperature and pressure changes., Gneiss, granite, slate, schist, marble, quartzite etc., are some examples of metamorphic rocks. They, are classified as mentioned below:, , 1. Contact or thermal metamorphism: here, metamorphism occurs when the mineral, composition of the surrounding rocks is changed, due to intense heat e.g. Limestone is changed to, marble., 2. Regional or dynamic metamorphism:, here pressure plays an important role so that, rocks are altered in their forms in an extensive, area., Rock Cycle, , Rocks do not remain in their original form, for long but may undergo transformation. Rock, cycle is a continuous process through which old, rocks are transformed into new ones. Igneous, rocks are primary rocks and other rocks, (sedimentary and metamorphic) form from these, primary rocks. Igneous rocks can be changed, into metamorphic rocks. The fragments derived, out of igneous and metamorphic rocks transform, into sedimentary rocks. Sedimentary rocks, themselves can turn into fragments and the, fragments can be a source for formation of other, sedimentary rocks. The crustal rocks (igneous,, metamorphic and sedimentary) once formed, may be carried down into the mantle (interior, of the earth) through subduction process (parts, , Chronicle IAS Academy

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CH, IA R, S, O, N, AC I, C, AD L, E, EM, Y, , or whole of crustal plates going down under, another plate in zones of plate convergence). The, same can melt down due to increase in, temperature in the interior and turn into molten, magma, the original source for igneous rocks., ,


, , [24], , Chronicle IAS Academy

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FORCES EFFECTING THE, EAR, TH MO, VEMENTS, EARTH, MOVEMENTS, , IAS ACADEMY, , A CIVIL SERVICES CHRONICLE INITIATIVE, , (syncline) as a result of horizontal earth, movements which cause compression within the, crust. The anticlines of the folds generally form, the mountains and the adjacent synclines form, the valleys. Most of the mountain ranges of the, world consist of Fold Mountains e.g. the Alps,, the Andes, the Rockies and the Himalayas., , CH, IA R, S, O, N, AC I, C, AD L, E, EM, Y, , The forces which affect the earth’s, movement are involved in the creation,, destruction, recreation and maintenance of, various types of relief features of varying, magnitudes. On the basis of origin these forces, are divided into (i) endogenetic forces and (ii), exogenetic forces. While endogenetic forces, create relief features on the earth’s surface, the, exogenetic forces through their erosional and, depositional activities destroy them and help in, the planation process., , CHRONICLE, , Endogenetic forces, , Term endogenic refers to internal processes, and phenomena that occur beneath the Earth's, surface. These forces are divided into sudden, forces and diastrophic forces., , Geometry of Folds - Folds are described by, their form and orientation. The sides of a fold, are called limbs. The limbs intersect at the tightest, part of the fold, called the hinge. A line, connecting all points on the hinge is called the, fold axis. In the diagrams above, the fold axes, are horizontal, but if the fold axis is not, horizontal the fold is called a plunging, , (a) Sudden forces: events like earthquake and, volcanic eruption occur suddenly and the, resultant forces work very quickly. They, are constructive forces as they create cones,, lakes, plateaus, lava plains etc., (b) Diastrophic forces: they include both, vertical and horizontal movements., , (i) Vertical movement: they include, emergence and subsidence of land masses., Emergence may occur due to upliftment of, the whole continent or part there of or, upliftment of coastal land of the continents., Submergence may occur when the land, near the sea coast subsides below sea level., (ii) Horizontal movement: these forces work, into two ways, , a) In opposite direction - this includes, tensional or divergent forces which create, faults, rupture, fracture, cracks etc., b) Towards each other - This includes, compressional or convergent forces which, create folding, warping etc., , fold and the angle that the fold axis makes with, a horizontal line is called the plunge of the fold., An imaginary plane, that includes the fold axis, and divides the fold as symmetrically as possible,, is called the axial plane of the fold., Types of Folds, , Not all folds are equal on both sides of the, axis of the fold. Those with limbs of relatively, equal length are termed symmetrical, and those, with highly unequal limbs are asymmetrical., Asymmetrical folds generally have an axis at an, angle to the original unfolded surface they, formed on. Other kinds of folds are:, •, , Folding:, It is the process whereby the rock strata are, bent into a series of arches (anticlines) and toughs, , [25], , Anticlines - Up folds., When the upper part of the fold is eroded, away, the oldest rocks are in the center of, the fold, and the youngest rocks are on, , Chronicle IAS Academy

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by the sinking of a block of land between two, more or less parallel faults. Examples: East, African rift valley, Narmada and Tapti valleys., Columns of faulting bring four distinguishable, landforms as:, I., , Rift valley: it is the result of the subsidence, of the central column. When the central, column of the two fault-lines subsides, the, rift valley is made. "Damodar valley" is such, an example., , CH, IA R, S, O, N, AC I, C, AD L, E, EM, Y, , •, , each side. Also, the rocks dip (or slope), away from the central axis of the fold., Synclines - Down folds., When the upper part of the fold is eroded, away, the youngest rocks are in the center, of the fold, and the oldest rocks are on, each side. Also, the rocks dip toward the, central axis of the fold., , •, , Monoclines - a bend in otherwise, horizontal strata., , •, , Isoclinal folds have undergone greater, stress that has compressed the limbs of the, folds tightly together., , •, , The limbs of overturned folds dip in the, same direction, indicating that the upper, part of the fold has overridden the lower, part. Depending, , on where the exposure is in an overturned, fold, the oldest strata might actually be on, top of the sequence and be misinterpreted, as the youngest rock unit., , •, , •, , Recumbent folds, found in areas of the, greatest tectonic stress, are folds that are, so overturned that the limbs are essentially, horizontal and parallel., Chevron: angular fold with straight limbs, and small hinges., , Faulting:, , It is the process by which the tensional earth, movements under the effect of considerable, pressure create a fracture in the earth's crust., Faulting gives rise to relief features like block, mountains (horsts), rift valleys, etc. A rift valley, is a long, relatively narrow depression formed, , [26], , II. Ramp valley: when both side columns are, raised and the central column is standstill,, then the made landform is ramp valley., "Brahmaputra" river passes through a ramp, valley., III. Block Mountain: this is the result of the, subsidence of side column. The central, column gets, , steep rim along the fault scarps and the, raised landform is Block Mountain., "Satpura hills" of India is such an example., , IV. Horst: Horst is a similar landform but is, supposed to be due to upward force from, beneath the central column. Side-columns, are standstill. "Harz Mountain" of Germany, is an example., , Exogenetic forces, , Exogenic forces refer to external processes, and phenomena that occur on or above the, Earth's surface. Comet and meteoroid impacts,, the tidal force of the moon and sun's radiations, are all exogenic. Weathering effects and erosion, are also exogenic processes. They also affect the, planation processes. These are also called, denudational or destructive forces. The erosional, process is affected by running water, ground, water, glaciers, sea waves etc. These processes, form erosional and depositional land forms., , Chronicle IAS Academy

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CHRONICLE, IAS ACADEMY, , A CIVIL SERVICES CHRONICLE INITIATIVE, , melting. This process is most effective at, high elevations in mid-latitudes where, freezing and melting is often repeated., Glacial areas are subject to frost wedging, daily. In this process, the rate of freezing is, important. Rapid freezing of water causes, its sudden expansion and high pressure., , CH, IA R, S, O, N, AC I, C, AD L, E, EM, Y, , WEA, THERING &, WEATHERING, EROSION, Weathering, , Weathering is the process of disintegration, and decomposition of rocks while erosion is the, process of removal, transportation and, deposition of the weathered particles. These, processes together are known as “Denudation.”, , Weathering is defined as mechanical, disintegration and chemical decomposition of, rocks through the actions of various elements of, weather and climate. Weathering process brings, mechanical disintegration and chemical, decaying of rocks. Weather conditions are the, most decisive phenomenon hence the name, weathering. However the type and rate of, weathering are also influenced by rock structure,, topography and vegetation. Weathering is a, static process. It is also the process of soil genesis., It is of three types:, , I. Mechanical Weathering: When a region, undergoes mechanical weathering, rocks are, broken into small pieces. Physical or mechanical, weathering processes depend on some applied, forces. The applied forces could be: (i), gravitational forces such as overburden pressure,, load and shearing stress; (ii) expansion forces, due to temperature changes, crystal growth or, animal activity; (iii) water pressures controlled, by wetting and drying cycles., Many of these forces are applied both at the, surface and within different earth materials, leading to rock fracture. Most of the physical, weathering processes are caused by thermal, expansion and pressure release. These processes, are small and slow but can cause great damage, to the rocks because of continued fatigue the, rocks suffer due to repetition of contraction and, expansion., , This mechanical disintegration takes place in, different ways., , (a) Frost Action: Frost weathering occurs due, to growth of ice within pores and cracks of, rocks during repeated cycles of freezing and, , [27], , The resulting expansion affects joints, cracks, and small inter granular fractures to, become wider and wider till the rock breaks, apart., , (b) Thermal Expansion and Contraction:, Various minerals in rocks possess their own, limits of expansion and contraction. With, rise in temperature, every mineral expands, and pushes against its neighbour and as, temperature falls, a corresponding, contraction takes place. Because of diurnal, changes in the temperatures, this internal, movement among the mineral grains of the, superficial layers of rocks takes place, regularly. This process is most effective in, dry climates and high elevations where, diurnal temperature changes are drastic., Though these movements are very small, they make the rocks weak due to continued, fatigue., The surface layers of the rocks tend to, expand more than the rock at depth and, this leads to the formation of stress within, the rock resulting in heaving and fracturing, parallel to the surface. Due to differential, heating, the resulting expansion and, contraction of surface layers and their, subsequent exfoliation from the surface, results in smooth rounded surfaces of rocks., , In rocks like granites, smooth surfaced and, rounded small to big boulders called tors, form due to such exfoliation. In the area of, hot deserts, the diurnal range of, temperature brings the expansion and, contraction of surface rocks, leading to their, disintegration into smaller pieces., , (c) Exfoliation: This is the expansion by, , Chronicle IAS Academy

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(i) Flaking: Different heating of outer and, lower shells of a rock mass causes flaking., II. Chemical Weathering: It changes the basic, properties of the rock. Principal processes, of chemical weathering are:, (a) Solution:, dissolved., solids in, solubility, acids., , Here the rocks are completely, This process involves removal of, solution and depends upon, of a mineral in water or weak, , CH, IA R, S, O, N, AC I, C, AD L, E, EM, Y, , unloading process. Unloading occurs when, large igneous bodies are exposed through, the erosional removal of overlying rock and, the reduction in the pressure. On being, exposed to the surface they expand slightly, in volume. This leads to the peeling of thick, shells like an onion’s layers from the parent, rock., , (d) Spalling: When there is a sudden shower, in the hot desert area, the highly heated, rocks when struck by sudden drizzle, develop numerous cracks., , (e) Cavernous Weathering: It occurs generally, in hot arid region and also in the rocks of, coastal area., (f) Salt Weathering: Salts in rocks expand due, to thermal action, hydration and, crystallization. Many salts like calcium,, sodium, magnesium, potassium and barium, have a tendency to expand. Expansion of, these salts depends on temperature and, their thermal properties. High temperature, ranges between 30°C and 50°C of surface, temperatures in deserts favour such salt, expansion., Salt crystals in near-surface pores cause, splitting of individual grains within rocks,, which eventually fall off. This process of, falling off of individual grains may result, in granular disintegration or granular, foliation., , Salt crystallization is most effective of all, salt-weathering processes. In areas with, alternating wetting and drying conditions, salt crystal growth is favoured and the, neighbouring grains are pushed aside., Sodium chloride and gypsum crystals in, desert areas heave up overlying layers of, materials and with the result polygonal, cracks develop all over the heaved surface., With salt crystal growth, chalk breaks down, most readily, followed by limestone,, sandstone, shale, gneiss and granite etc., , (g) Sheeting: The development of cracks and, fractures, parallel to the ground surface,, caused by removal of superincumbent load., (h) Cambering process: Due to expansion, caused by unloading of super-incombitant, load and consequent release of confining, pressure., , [28], , On coming in contact with water many, solids disintegrate and mix up as suspension, in water. Soluble rock forming minerals like, nitrates, sulphates and potassium etc. are, affected by this process. So, these minerals, are easily leached out without leaving any, residue in rainy climates and accumulate, in dry regions. Minerals like calcium, carbonate and calcium magnesium, bicarbonate present in limestones are, soluble in water containing carbonic acid, (formed with the addition of carbon dioxide, in water), and are carried away in water, as solution. Carbon dioxide produced by, decaying organic matter along with soil, water greatly aids in this reaction. Common, salt (sodium chloride) is also a rock forming, mineral and is susceptible to this process of, solution., , (b) Oxidation and Reduction: In weathering,, oxidation means a combination of a, mineral with oxygen to form oxides or, hydroxides. Oxidation occurs where there, is ready access to the atmosphere and, oxygenated waters. The minerals most, commonly involved in this process are iron,, manganese, sulphur etc. Though it is a, universal phenomenon but it is more, apparent in rocks containing iron., In the process of oxidation rock breakdown, occurs due to the disturbance caused by, addition of oxygen. Red colour of iron upon, oxidation turns to brown or yellow. When, oxidized minerals are placed in an, environment where oxygen is absent,, reduction takes place. Such conditions exist, usually below the water table, in areas of, stagnant water and waterlogged ground., Red colour of iron upon reduction turns to, greenish or bluish grey., , (c) Hydration: Hydration is the chemical, , Chronicle IAS Academy

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move materials to or near the surface where, they are more closely subjected to chemical, weathering., , Erosion, Erosion is concerned with the various ways, in which the mobile agencies acquire and remove, rock debris. The acquisition of materials by the, mobile agencies and their transport, i.e. corrasion, and transportation are considered to be the, integral part of erosion. The principal erosional, agents are running water, groundwater, glaciers,, wind and coastal waves. Each of the agents does, erosion by distinctive processes and gives rise to, distinctive landforms. There are five common, aspects of erosion by the above mentioned, agents., , CH, IA R, S, O, N, AC I, C, AD L, E, EM, Y, , addition of water. Most of the rock-forming, minerals absorb water. Minerals take up, water and expand. This not only increases, their volume but also produces chemical, changes resulting in the formation of new, minerals which are softer and more, voluminous. E.g. this process converts, hematite into limonite. Calcium sulphate, takes in water and turns to gypsum, which, is more unstable than calcium sulphate., , This process is reversible and long,, continued repetition of this process causes, fatigue in the rocks and may lead to their, disintegration. Many clay minerals swell, and contract during wetting and drying, and a repetition of this process results in, cracking of overlying materials. Salts in pore, spaces undergo rapid and repeated, hydration and help in rock fracturing. The, volume changes in minerals due to, hydration will also help in physical, weathering through exfoliation and, granular disintegration., , (d) Carbonation: Carbonation is the reaction, of carbonate and bicarbonate with minerals, and is a common process helping the, breaking down of feldspars and carbonate, minerals. Carbon dioxide from the, atmosphere and soil air is absorbed by, water, to form carbonic acid that acts as a, weak acid. Calcium carbonates and, magnesium carbonates are dissolved in, carbonic acid and are removed in a solution, without leaving any residue resulting in, cave formation., (e) Hydrolysis: The mineral of the rocks and, water molecules react in such a way that, new mineral compounds are formed., Silicate minerals are most affected by, defrosts., (f) Chelation: Chelation is a complex organic, process by hydrocarbon molecules., Chelation is form of Chemical weathering, by plants., , These weathering processes are interrelated., Hydration, carbonation and oxidation go, hand in hand and hasten the weathering, process., , III. Biological Weathering: This type of, weathering is performed by the tree roots,, animals and human beings. As the plant, roots grow, they wedge the rocks apart and, cause the widening of joints and other, fractures. Micro animals like earthworms,, ants, termites and other burrowing animals, , [29], , (1) The acquisition of rocks fragments., (2) Wearing away of rocks fragments., , (3) The breaking down of the rock particles by, mutual wear while in transit., (4) Transportation of the acquired rock debris., (5) Ultimately the deposition in the low lying, areas., , Mass Wasting, , Mass wasting is the movement of material, down a slope under the influence of gravity. It, is a transitional phenomenon between, weathering and erosion. Mass Wasting is of, Various Types: Land-slide, Debris avalanche,, Earth-flow, Mud-flow, and Sheet-flow etc., (a) Soil creep: In soil covered slope extremely, slow downslope movement of soil and over, burden may be found. This process is called, as soil creep., , (b) Talus cones: Steep rocks walls of gorges, and high mountains shed countless rock, particles under the attack of physical, weathering processes., (c) Earth Flows: In humid climate region, if, slope are steep, masses of water-saturated, soil due to over burden or weak bedrock, may side down slope during a period of, few hours., (d) Mud flow: Rapid flowage of mud stream, down a canyon floor and spreading out on, plain at the foot of a mountain range is, called as mud flow., (e) Landslide: The downslope movement of, regolith of bed rock is called as landslide., , Chronicle IAS Academy

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GEOMORPHOLOGICAL, LANDFORMS, , CHRONICLE, IAS ACADEMY, , A CIVIL SERVICES CHRONICLE INITIATIVE, , central Europe, the Pennines, the Highland, of Scotland, etc. These mountains were, folded in very ancient times, and then, subjected to denudation and uplift. Many, faults were formed and the layers of the, rock were wrapped. Many mountains exist, as relicts due to erosion., , CH, IA R, S, O, N, AC I, C, AD L, E, EM, Y, Mountains, , A mountain is defined as “a natural, elevation of the earth surface rising more or less, abruptly from the surrounding level and, attaining an altitude which, relative to the, adjacent elevation, is impressive or notable”., Mountains can be classified on the basis of their, structure or their origin., A. Structural classification:, , I. Fold Mountains: These mountains have, originated due to compressional tectonic, forces and have been thrown up to form, fold mountains e.g. Himalayas, Andes, Alps, etc. The folds consist of two inclined parts, called limbs, the upfold is called anticline, and the downward portion is called, syncline., , All young folded mountains have originated, from geosynclines. Geosynclines are long narrow, and shallow water depressions characterized by, sedimentation and the subsequent subsidence., The conversion of geosynclines into folded, mountains requires geologically long time with, definite phases of mountain building process-, , (b) Orogenesis: After horizontal compression, has completed its task, vertical uplift starts., This is the real stage of mountain building., (c) Glyptogenesis: In this phase the, characteristic land forms are sculptured by, erosion., On the basis of age the Fold Mountains can be, grouped into:, , (i) New or Young fold Mountains: Example:, The Alps, the Himalayas, the Circum-Pacific, oceanic Mountains, etc. The main features, of these mountains are the complex folding, of the rocks, faulting, volcanic activities, and, the erosion caused by running water, ice,, winds, etc., (ii) Old Fold Mountains: Example: The, Caledonian and Hercynian mountains of, , [30], , II. Block Mountains: They are originated by, tensile forces leading to formation of rift, valleys. They are also called horst, mountains e.g. black forest, Vosges,, Vindhya, Satpura, Sierra Nevada etc. When, the crust cracks due to tension or, compression faulting takes place. A section, of the landform may subside or rise above, the surrounding level giving rise to Rift, valley or Graben and Block Mountains or, Horst. The Block Mountains have a steep, slope towards the rift valley but the slope, on the other side is long and gentle., III. Dome Mountains: They are originated by, magmatic intrusion and upwarping of, crustal surface e.g. lava domes, Batholith, domes etc., IV Mountain of Accumulation: They are, originated by accumulation of volcanic, material e.g. cinder cones, composite cones, etc. These are formed by the emission and, deposition of lava and so they are also, called volcanic mountains. The slope of the, mountains becomes steep and the height, increases due to the development of the, cones of various types like Cinder cones,, Composite Cones, Acid lava cones, Basic, lava cones, etc. Some of the examples of, this type are Popocatepetl of Mexico, Mount, Rainier of Washington, Lessen Peak of, California, the Vesuvius of Italy, the, Fujiyama in Japan, the Aconcagua in Chile, etc., V Circum Erosional or Relict Mountain: e.g., Vindhyachal ranges, Aravallis, Satpura,, Eastern and Western Ghats, Nilgiris,, Parasnath, Girnar, Rajmahal. These, , Chronicle IAS Academy

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mountains have been subjected to, weathering and erosion for a long time and, lowered down. They represent the old stage, of mountain life cycle., , B. The Maturity of Mountains:, 1. The rivers are mature and many watergaps exist in the area., 2. The height of the mountains is not much., 3. The peaks are rounded, generally covered, by thick vegetation., , CH, IA R, S, O, N, AC I, C, AD L, E, EM, Y, , B. Classification on the basis of Mountain, Building periods, •, Pre-Cambrian Mountains: Rocks of, these mountains are older than the Cambrian era, and are found in older stable, blocks or old shields which are now, metamorphosed. Some of those old, shields are Laurentia, Fennoscandinevia, (Europe),, Angaraland, (Asia),, Gondwanaland (Asia), etc., •, Caledonian Mountains: (320 m.yrs.):, Mountains of Scandinavia, Scotland, N., America, Aravallis, Mahadeo, Satpura, fall under this category. This mountain, building process started at the end of, the Silurian period or at the beginning, of the Devonian period., •, Hercynian Mountains: (240m.yrs.):, These Mountains were formed during, Permian and Permo-Carboniferous period. They include Appalachian in N., America, Meseta in Spain, Vosges and, Black Forest in Germany, Harz, Donetz, area of Ural , Altai, Kinghan ,Tien, Shan, Alai, Nan-Shan, etc. Meseta, Mountains in Morocco; the High Atlas, Mountains also represent this category., •, Alpine Mountains (30m.yrs.): It started, by the end of the Mesozoic era and continued upto the Tertiary period. These, are the highest mountains of the world., Being newer, the erosional forces could, not erode them into a Peneplain like the, Himalayas, the Alps, the Rockies, the, Andes, the Atlas, etc., , 5. The sky line is irregular., , Stages of Mountains Building: The life, history of mountains can be divided into youth,, maturity and old stage. Following are the, characteristics of mountains in different stages:A. The Youth Mountains:, , 4. Landslides are uncommon, earthquakes are experienced., , and, , no, , 5. Slopes are not steep. Pebbles and rock, fragments are accumulated in the piedmont, area., , C. The Old-Age of Mountains:, , 1. The rivers have attained old age., , 2. Monadnocks are found denuded and are a, common sight., 3. The mountains are low., condition seems imminent., , Peneplain, , 4. The area is broad, low and leveled which, has wavy hills at some places., , Plateau, , Plateaus are extensive upland areas, characterized by flat and rough top surface and, steep walls which rise above the neighbouring, ground surface at least for 300 m., On the basis of mode of formation the plateaus, can be classified into:, , 1. Plateaus Formed by Running Water: Many, parts of the Deccan of India (Kaimur, Plateau, Rewa Plateau, Rohtas Plateau,, Bhander Plateau), Brazilian Plateau., , 2. Plateaus formed by Glacial Erosion:, Plateau of Greenland and Antarctica,, Garhwal Plateau., 3. Plateaus formed by Glacial Deposition:, Russian Plateau, Finland Plateau, Merg of, Kashmir., , 1. The rivers are youthful and the valleys are, deep and their flow is fast., , 4. Aeolian plateaus: Loess Plateau of China,, Potwar Plateau of Rawalpindi in Pakistan., , 2. Landslide and volcanic activities are, common., , 5. Plateaus formed by endogenic processes:, (a) Intermontane Plateaus: Tibetan Plateau,, Bolivian Plateau, Peruvian Plateau,, Columbian Plateau, Mexican Plateau., (b) Piedmont Plateaus: Appalachian Pla-, , 3. The mountains are high., 4. The slopes are steep and the piedmont is, bare., , [31], , Chronicle IAS Academy

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drainage is dendritic in nature., (b) The Dissected Plains of Maturity: Such, plains are found in North Missouri,, Southern Iowa and Eastern Nebraska of, USA. Areas of gentle slope are very limited, and plain areas are available more in the, valleys and the water divides are reduced, to small ridges., , CH, IA R, S, O, N, AC I, C, AD L, E, EM, Y, , teau, Patagonian Plateau, Colorado Plateau., (c) Dome Plateaus: Ozark Massif (USA),, Chhotanagpur Plateau., (d) Lava Plateaus: Columbian Plateau,, Mahabaleshwar Plateau., (e) Continental Plateau: Deccan plateau,, Ranchi plateau, Shillong plateau, Columbia Plateau, Mexican Plateau etc. etc., (f) Coastal Plateau: Coromandal coastal, upland of India., (g) Rejuvenated Plateau: Missouri Plateau, (USA)., (h) Mature Plateau: Ranchi Plateau,, Hazaribagh Plateau, Appalachian Plateau (USA)., (i) Young Plateau: Idaho Plateau (USA),, Colorado, Plateau, (USA),, Mahabaleshwar Plateau, Khandala upland (Maharashtra)., , Plains, , Plains can be defined as flat areas with low, height. They may be above or below sea level, e.g. coastal plains of Netherlands., The plains may be classified as under:, , 1. Formation of plain due to deposition of, sediments over submerged coastlands e.g., Coromandal coastal plains., , 2. River deposited plains e.g. north Indian, plains, 3. Piedmont alluvial plain e.g. Bhabar plain, , 4. Flood plains e.g. Khadar and Bhangar, plains, , 5. Lava plains e.g. plains of New Zealand,, Iceland etc., , 6. Glaciated plains e.g. north west Eurasian, plain., A. Erosional Plains, , 1. Plains of Fluvial Erosion: The plains, formed by river erosion have a lot of, variation because of the stages of, erosional development, the initial slope and, the structure of basal rocks., , (a) The Dissected Plains of the Youth: The, Colorado, Kansas, Nebraska, east of the, Rockies belong to this category of plains., The broad water-divides, large valleys are, the main characteristics of such plains. The, , [32], , (c) The Plains of Old Age: Peneplain and, Panplains usually represent this stage of, plains., Peneplain: Very few areas like Guinea plain, in the north-east S. America are fully developed, peneplains. The Appalachian had developed, into peneplains in the ancient times but was later, uplifted again. Here the high summits are of, equal heights., Panplains: A plain formed of flood plains, joined by their own strength. It is a product of, lateral erosion by streams., 2. Glaciated Plains : When the ice sheet, melted specially in N. America and W., Eurasia , the area eroded by ice was, exposed . Here the rivers have adjusted, themselves before the extension of ice sheet., Lakes, swamps, waterfalls and rapids are, common., 3. Aeolian Plains: Winds blow the sand and, starts the activities of deflection, abrasion,, etc. The plains produced by the wind, actions are Reg, Serir and Hamada., 4. Plains of Semi-arid Denudation : This, type of plain includes the peneplains of, USA and the pediplains of south-west, of Africa., 5. Plains at Continental Edges: Theses have, evolved at the sea coast by the action of, waves and later uplifted. The flat plains, situated at the coast of Norway fall into, this category., 6. Karst Plains: They are found in limestone, areas. The underground water removed the, limestone layer by the process of solution., A large number of depressions are, produced in these plains e.g. the coastal, plain of Adriatic Sea and the Karst plain, of Florida (USA)., B. Depositional Plains, 1. Plains of Alluvial Deposition : The, , Chronicle IAS Academy

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Denmark, The Gulf of Mexico in U.S.A.,, etc., , Lakes, Lakes may be defined as non-permanent, features of static water on the land surface. The, lakes can be classified as under:, , CH, IA R, S, O, N, AC I, C, AD L, E, EM, Y, , deposition of the sediments takes place, in three areas - the floor , the mouth and, the valley of the river where the slope, suddenly decreases. The shape of such, depositional plain changes according to the, method and place of deposition and forms, three types of plains., •, Flood Plains: Here the river deposits its, sediments by meandering through its, course. The flood plains of Mississippi,, Ganga, Indus and Nile are good examples., •, Deltaic Plains: When the river terminates in the sea or lake, the deltas are, formed due to deposition. The deltaic, plains resemble flood plains but the existence of large number of distributaries, provides them with a distinction., Marshes and natural levees are common, here. The Deltaic plains of the Ganga,, the Indus, the Nile and the Mississippi, are famous., •, Piedmont Alluvial Plains: The piedmont, alluvial fans combine together and form, a plain. Rough particles are found at, the apex but the particles of debris get, finer as we move towards the periphery., 2. Plains of Glacial Deposition: These are, found in N. America and Europe, in areas, which were affected by glacial action. The, surface is slightly undulating and has low, and broad ridges and depressions., , 3. Desert Plains of Wind Erosion: The Loess, Plain of China was formed by the, windblown deposition of Gobi desert,, situated west of it. Some other examples of, such plains are the Sahara of Africa, the, Koum of Russian Turkistan, the northcentral Nebraska, etc., , 4. Plains of Marine Deposition: They develop, near the coast of shallow sea. Sand,, alluvium, vegetation, etc. are deposited at, the coastal areas of Netherlands, Germany,, , 1. Fresh water lakes e.g. the great lakes of, U.S.A., 2. Saline lakes e.g. great salt lake of Utah,, Caspian sea, dead sea, lake van etc., , 3. Fluvial lakes e.g. Wular lake, Marigot lake,, Mayeh lake, 4. Lakes formed by volcanic Activity: Crater, and Caldera Lakes- Lake Oregon (USA),, Lakes Toba (Sumatra), , 5. Lakes formed by earth movements:, I. Tectonic Lakes: - Lake Titicaca (Andes),, (highest Lake of world), Caspian Sea, (Largest Lake of the world)., II. Rift valley Lakes:- Tanganyika, Malawi,, Rudolf, Edward, Albert, Dead Sea (1256, ft below mean sea level the world’s, Lowest Lakes), 6. Lakes formed by deposition:, I. Due to river deposits – Ox-bow Lakes, , II. Due to marine deposits – Lagoons, Delta, , 7, , Lakes formed by Erosion:, I. Karst Lakes – Lake Scutari (Yugoslavia), II. Wind – deflated Lakes (Salt Lakes & Playas), 8. Lakes formed by Glaciations:, I. Cirque Lakes of Tarns – Lake Red Tarn, (U.K.), II. Kettle Lakes – Orkney (Scotland), III. Rock-hollow Lakes – Lakes of Finland, (the land of lakes), IV. Lake due to Moraines – Lake, Windermere (U.K.), V. Lakes due to deposition of glacial driftsNorth Ireland., ,


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CHRONICLE, IAS ACADEMY, , A CIVIL SERVICES CHRONICLE INITIATIVE, , (b) Dormant volcano e.g. Vesuvius, Barren, island volcano (Andaman), (c) Extinct volcano e.g. where no indication of future eruption is estimated., 2. Classification on the basis of the mode, of eruption:, , CH, IA R, S, O, N, AC I, C, AD L, E, EM, Y, , VOL, CANOES AND, OLCANOES, EAR, THQ, UAKES, EARTHQ, THQU, Volcano, , A volcano is a vent or opening usually, circular in form through which heated materials, consisting of gases, water, liquid lava and, fragments of rocks are ejected from the highly, heated interior to the surface of the earth., Magma is molten rock within the Earth’s crust., When magma erupts through the earth’s, surface it is called lava. Lava can be thick and, slow-moving or thin and fast-moving. Rock also, comes from volcanoes in other forms, including, ash (finely powdered rock that looks like dark, smoke coming from the volcano), cinders (bits, of fragmented lava), and pumice (light-weight, rock that is full of air bubbles and is formed in, explosive volcanic eruptions - this type of rock, can float on water)., Volcanic eruptions are closely associated with, several interconnected processes such as, , (i) The gradual increase in temperature with, increasing depth at a rate of 1°c per 32m, due to heat generated by degeneration of, radioactive elements inside the earth., , (ii) origin of magma because of lowering of, melting point caused by reduction in, pressure of overlying rocks due to fractures, caused by splitting of plates, (iii) origin of gases and water vapour due to, heating of water, , (iv) ascent of magma due to pressure from, gases and vapour, (v) Occurrence of volcanic eruption. These, eruptions are closely associated with plate, boundaries., Volcanoes are classified under different, schemes:, 1. Classification on the basis of periodicity, of eruptions:, (a) Active volcano e.g. Etna, Stromboli,, Pinatubo etc., , [34], , (A) Volcanic of central Eruption type- Eruption, occurs through a central pipe and small, opening are rapid and violent. Such, volcanoes are very destructive and, disastrous. It is divided into 5 sub types as, follow:(a) Hawaiian Types: Such Volcanoes erupt, quietly due to less viscous Laves and, non-violent natures of gases. They emit, long glossy threads of red molten Lava, known as peel’s hair e.g. Hawaiian Island., (b) Strombolian Type: The eruptions are, almost rhythmic or nearly continuous in, nature but sometimes they are interrupted by long intervals. Ex- Stromboli, volcano of Lipari island., (c) Vulcanian Type: Such volcanoes erupt, with great force and intensity The Lava, is so viscous and pasty that these are, quickly solidified e.g. Mt. Vulcano of, Lipari Island of Mediterranean Sea., (d) Peleean Type: Most violent and most, explosive type of volcanoes, named as, Nuee Ardente, meaning thus by glowing cloud e.g. Pelee volcano of, Martinique Island in the Caribbean Sea,, Krakatau volcano between Java and, Sumatra in Sunda strait., (e) Visuvian type: Extremely violent and, enormous volume of gases and ashes, forms which clouds like cauliflower. This, is also called Plinian type., (B) Fissure eruption or quiet eruption type, e.g. Lava flow or flood, mud flow and, fumaroles. Large quantities of lava quietly, well up from fissure and spread out over, the surrounding countryside. Successive, lava flows results in the growth of a lava, platform which may be extensive to be, , Chronicle IAS Academy

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called a plateau like “Deccan” “Columbia, snake plateau”, Drakensberg mountains”,, “Victoria and Kimberley” districts of, Australia, “ Java island”., Plate tectonics and Volcanoes, , CH, IA R, S, O, N, AC I, C, AD L, E, EM, Y, , A. Divergent plate boundaries, , becomes dormant after a while and a new, volcano is then formed as the plate shifts over, the hotspot. The Hawaiian Islands are thought, to be formed in such a manner, as well as the, Snake River Plain, with the Yellowstone Caldera, of the North American plate currently above the, hot spot. Another example is India’s Deccan, plateau which is the result of lava outflow from, the Reunion hotspot., , At the mid-oceanic ridges, two tectonic, plates diverge from one another. New oceanic, crust is being formed by hot molten rock slowly, cooling and solidifying. The crust is very thin at, mid-oceanic ridges due to the pull of the tectonic, plates. The release of pressure leads to partial, melting of the mantle causing volcanism and, creating new oceanic crust. Most divergent plate, boundaries are at the bottom of the oceans,, therefore most volcanic activity is submarine,, forming new seafloor. Black smokers or deep, sea vents are an example of this kind of volcanic, activity. Where the mid-oceanic ridge is above, sea-level, volcanic islands are formed, for, example, Iceland., B. Convergent plate boundaries, , Subduction zones are places where two, plates, usually an oceanic plate and a continental, plate, collide. In this case, the oceanic plate, subducts or submerges under the continental, plate forming a deep ocean trench just offshore., Water released from the subducting plate lowers, the melting temperature of the overlying mantle, wedge, creating magma. This magma tends to, be very viscous due to its high silica content so, that it often does not reach the surface and cools, at depth. When it does reach the surface, a, volcano is formed. Typical examples for this kind, of volcano are Mount Etna and the volcanoes, in the Pacific Ring of Fire., C. Hotspots, , Hotspots are not usually located on the, edges of tectonic plates, above mantle plumes,, where the convection of the Earth’s mantle, creates a column of hot material that rises until, it reaches the crust, which tends to be thinner, than in other areas of the Earth. The, temperature of the plume causes the crust to melt, and form pipes, which can vent magma. Because, the tectonic plates move whereas the mantle, plume remains in the same place, each volcano, , [35], , Topography produced by volcanoes:, , (i) Cinder or ash cone: They are of low height, and are formed of volcanic dust, ashes and, pyroclastic matter. Its formation takes place, due to accumulation of finer particles, around the volcanoes vent., , (ii) Shield volcanoes: So named for their, broad, shield-like profiles, are formed by, the eruption of low-viscosity lava that can, flow a great distance from a vent, but not, generally explode catastrophically. Since, low-viscosity magma is typically low in, silica, shield volcanoes are more common, in oceanic settings. The Hawaiian volcanic, chain is a series of shield cones, and they, are common in Iceland as well., , (iii)Composite cones: They are formed due to, the accumulation of different layers of, various volcanic materials., (iv) Parasite cones: When lava comes out of, the minor pipes coming out of the main, central pipe, parasite cones are formed., , (v) Basic lava cone: It has less quantity of silica, in its lava., , (vi) Acidic lava cone: It has more silica in its, lava., (vii)Lava domes: These are formed due to, accumulation of solidified lavas around the, volcanic vents., , (viii)Lava plugs: They are formed due to, plugging of volcanic pipes and vents when, volcano becomes extinct., (ix) Craters: The depression formed at the, mouth of a volcanic vent is called a crater., When it is filled with water, it becomes a, ‘crater lake’ e.g. Lake Lonar in, Maharashtra., (x) Calderas: Generally enlarged form of, craters is called caldera. It is formed due to, , Chronicle IAS Academy

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subsidence of a crater., (xi) Geysers: They are intermittent hot springs, that from time to time spout steam and hot, water from their craters., (xii)Fumaroles: It is a vent through which, there is emission of gases and water vapour., , Earthquake, An earthquake is a vibration or oscillation, of the surface of the earth caused by a transient, disturbance of the elastic or gravitational, equilibrium of the rocks at or beneath the surface., The magnitude or intensity of energy released, by an earthquake is measured by the richter scale., The place of the origin of an earthquake is called, focus which is hidden inside the earth. The place, on the ground surface which is perpendicular, to the buried focus is called ‘epicentre’. Seismic, waves are recorded by an instrument called, ‘seismograph’. Isoseismal lines join places which, experience the earthquake at the same time., , CH, IA R, S, O, N, AC I, C, AD L, E, EM, Y, , (xiii)Cryptodomes: These are formed when, viscous lava forces its way up and causes, a bulge. The 1980 eruption of Mount St., Helens was an example. Lava under great, pressure forced a bulge in the mountain,, which was unstable and slid down the, north side., , or lines of weakness marked by intense folding, and faulting., , (xiv)A supervolcano is a large volcano that, usually has a large caldera and can, potentially produce devastation on an, enormous, sometimes continental, scale., Such eruptions can cause severe cooling of, global temperatures for many years, afterwards because of the huge volumes, of sulphur and ash erupted. They are the, most dangerous type of volcano. Examples, include, Yellowstone, Caldera, in, Yellowstone National Park and Valles, Caldera in New Mexico (both western, United States), Lake Taupo in New, Zealand, Lake Toba in Sumatra and, Ngorogoro, Crater, in, Tanzania., Supervolcanoes are hard to identify, centuries later, given the enormous areas, they cover. Large igneous provinces are, also considered supervolcanoes because of, the vast amount of basalt lava erupted,, but are non-explosive., Distribution of volcanoes, , Volcanoes are unevenly distributed over the, earth and vast areas have no active volcanoes at, all. There are no volcanoes in Australia. In Asia,, they are largely concentrated in circum-pacific, region and Africa has a few of them. Thus, the, pacific belt is truly known as the “ring of fire”, because of the largest number of active volcanoes, along the coasts of America and Asia around, this region. Iceland, Sicily and Japan are the, biggest volcanic islands in the world. Most of the, volcanoes in the world occur along linear belts, , [36], , Causes of Earthquakes:, , If seen broadly we can say that earthquakes, are caused due to two major reasons. The first, reason is the eruption of volcanoes, which are, sudden. Volcanoes are seats of inner disturbance, and can affect the plates which are the second, cause of earthquakes. Earthquakes are caused, due to disturbance in the movement of plates,, which again can be caused due to various, reasons like under-crust waves or cracks in the, plates., A. Plate Tectonic Theory, , The outer layer of the earth is divided into, many sections known as plates, which are, floating on the molten magma beneath the, earth’s crust. Now the movement of these plates, is determined by the convection current in the, molten magma. Therefore after intervals there, are plates that get submerged in the molten, magma and there are plates that rise upwards, and at times even new crust is formed from the, molten magma which in turn forms a new plate, until it connects itself with the already existing, ones. At times these plates and can be pushed, up to form mountains and hills and the, movement is so slow that it is really hard to, comprehend that there is any movement at all., The movement and the results come out to be, visible suddenly. Now these plates are the bases, on which the continents stand and when these, plates move the continents also move. Most of, the earthquakes occur on the edges of the plates, , Chronicle IAS Academy

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where a plate is under, on or across another, plate. This movement disrupts the balance and, position of all plates, which leads to tremors,, which are called earthquakes., B. Volcanic Eruptions, , CH, IA R, S, O, N, AC I, C, AD L, E, EM, Y, , When volcanoes erupt it is because the, molten magma under the crust of the earth is, under enormous pressure and to release that, pressure it looks for an opening and exerts, pressure on the earth’s crust and the plate in turn., A place, which is the seat of an active volcano,, is often prone to earthquakes as well., Earthquakes are also caused after a volcanic, eruption since the eruption also leads to a, disturbance in the position of plates, which either, move further or resettle and can result into severe, or light tremors., , endogenetic forces:, I. Volcanic earthquake: they are caused, due to volcanic eruptions. E.g. Earthquakes caused by explosion of Krakatau, volcano in 1883 and Etna volcano in, 1968., II.Tectonic earthquake: they are caused, due to dislocation of rock blocks during, faulting e.g. 1906 earthquake of California and 1923 earthquake of Sangami, bay, Japan etc., III. Isostatic earthquake: they are triggered, due to sudden disturbance in the isostatic balance at regional scale due to, imbalance in geological processes e.g., near active mountain building zones., IV.Plutonic earthquakes: these are deep, focus earthquakes generally located between 240 and 670 km deep., 2. Artificial earthquakes: They are caused, due to man-made activities like pumping, water and mineral oil underground,, blasting of rocks, nuclear explosion, storage, of huge volume of water in reservoirs etc., Examples of earthquake due to construction, of huge dams include Koyna earthquake, of 1967 and Hoover dam earthquake of, 1936., , The excessive exploitation of earth’s, resources for our own benefits like building dams, to store large volumes of water (earthquake at, Koyna Nagar Township) and blasting rocks and, mountains to build bridges and roads is also the, reason behind such natural disruptions., Effects, , (1) Landslides and damming of the rivers in, highland regions., , (2) Causes depression forming lakes. May, cause faults, thrusts, folds, etc, (3) Formation of cracks or fissures in the, epicenter region and some- times water,, mud, gas are ejected from it., , (4) Causes the raising or lowering of parts of, the sea floor e.g. “Sangami bay” in 1923., This causes “tsunamis” or tidal waves., , (5) May change surface drainage &, underground circulation of water like the, sudden disappearance of springs in some, places., (6) Rising and lowering of crustal regions for, example in Alaska in 1899-16 m upliftment., (7) Devastation of cities, fires, diseases, etc., Classification of earthquakes, , Earthquakes are classified on the basis of, causative factors:, 1. Natural earthquakes: They are caused by, , [37], , Distribution of Earthquakes, , About 68% of all the earthquakes are, observed in the vast region of the pacific ocean, known as the “ring of fire” and is closely linked, with the region of crustal dislocations and, volcanic eruptions. Chile, California, Alaska,, Japan, Philippines, New Zealand constitute the, ring of fire., Around 21% of the earthquakes occur in the, mid-word mountain belt extending parallel to, the equator from Mexico across Atlantic Ocean,, the Mediterranean Sea from Alpine-Caucasus, ranges to the Caspian, Himalayan Mountains, , Chronicle IAS Academy

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and the adjoining belts: the earthquakes in India, are at present mainly confined to the Himalayan, regions and its foot hills. They are also felt in the, Ganga valley., , 4. Earth’s magnetic north and South Pole are, located on Prince of Wales Island in, Canada and South Victoria island in, Antarctica, respectively., , Points to Remember, , 5. “Homoseismal line” is the line joining places, that experience earthquake at the same, time., , CH, IA R, S, O, N, AC I, C, AD L, E, EM, Y, , 1. The largest crater known to have formed, by a meteorite is Coon Butte or Barringer, crater in USA. Lonar lake of Maharashtra, is the largest meteoric Crater Lake in India., , 2. Earth’s rotational velocity at equator is 1690, km/hr., 3. Elastic, rebound, theory, anthropogenic earthquake., , explains, , 6. The only active volcano in India is Barren, Island in Andaman-Nicobar islands., 7. Seismic waves that cause maximum, destruction is ‘L’ or long waves., 8. Magnitude of earthquake is measured on, Richter scale., ,


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EROSIONAL AND, DEPOSITIONAL LANDFORMS, , CHRONICLE, IAS ACADEMY, , A CIVIL SERVICES CHRONICLE INITIATIVE, , C. Meanders, , CH, IA R, S, O, N, AC I, C, AD L, E, EM, Y, Fluvial Landforms, , Rivers are a sizable stream of freshwater, flowing through a natural channel in the land., Rivers are among the most powerful natural, forces in shaping the earth’s surface. In draining, the land of surplus water, rivers wear down, mountains, plateaus, and other high landforms., In a never-ending process, eroded material is, carried by rivers. Some is deposited to form, floodplains in the valleys, some forms deltas at, the rivers’ mouths, and some is deposited in the, sea., •, Erosional Landforms, A. Valleys, , Valleys start as small and narrow rills; the, rills will gradually develop into long and wide, gullies; the gullies will further deepen, widen, and lengthen to give rise to valleys. Depending, upon dimensions and shape, many types of, valleys like V-shaped valley, gorge, canyon, etc., forms., , A gorge is a deep valley with very steep to, straight sides and a canyon is characterised by, steep step-like side slopes and may be as deep, as a gorge. A gorge is almost equal in width at, its top as well as its bottom. In contrast, a canyon, is wider at its top than at its bottom. In fact, a, canyon is a variant of gorge. Valley types, depend upon the type and structure of rocks in, which they form. For example, canyons, commonly form in horizontal bedded, sedimentary rocks and gorges form in hard, rocks., B. Potholes and Plunge Pools, , River meanders refers to the bends of, longitudinal cources of the rivers. The shape of, the meander is usually semi circular. It is, governed by lithological characteristics,, topographic, characteristics,, annual, precipitation, cycle of erosion etc., •, Depositional Landforms, , A. Alluvial Fans, , Alluvial fans are fan-shaped deposits of, water-transported material (alluvium). They, typically form at the base of topographic features, where there is a marked break in slope., Consequently, alluvial fans tend to be coarsegrained, especially at their mouths. At their, edges, however, they can be relatively finegrained., , B. Delta, , Deltas are built from primarily river-borne, sediment. It forms when the amount of sediment, delivered at the mouth of a river exceeds the, amount removed by waves and tidal currents, , Over the rocky beds of hill-streams more or, less circular depressions called potholes form, because of stream erosion aided by the abrasion, of rock fragments. Once a small and shallow, depression forms, pebbles and boulders get, collected in those depressions and get rotated, by flowing water and consequently the, depressions grow in dimensions. Such large and, deep holes at the base of waterfalls are called, plunge pools., , [39], , Chronicle IAS Academy

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C. Natural leeves, The narrow belt of ridges of low height built, by the deposition of sediments by the spill water, of the stream on the either bank is called natural, leeve., , CH, IA R, S, O, N, AC I, C, AD L, E, EM, Y, , Karst Topography, , the bottom of a sinkhole forms the roof of a void, or cave underground, it might collapse leaving, a large hole opening into a cave or a void below, (collapse sinks). Quite often, sinkholes are, covered up with soil mantle and appear as, shallow water pools. The term doline is, sometimes used to refer the collapse sinks. When, sink holes and dolines join together because of, slumping of materials along their margins or due, to roof collapse of caves, long, narrow to wide, trenches called valley sinks or Uvalas form., Gradually, most of the surface of the limestone, is eaten away by these pits and trenches, leaving, it extremely irregular with a maze of points,, grooves and ridges or lapies., , Karst is a distinctive topography in which, the landscape is largely shaped by the dissolving, action of water on carbonate bedrock (usually, limestone, dolomite, or marble)., , This geological process, occurring over many, thousands of years, results in unusual surface, and subsurface features ranging from sinkholes,, vertical shafts, disappearing streams, and, springs, to complex underground drainage, systems and caves., The process of karst formation involves what, is referred to as “the carbon dioxide cascade.”, As rain falls through the atmosphere, it picks, up CO2 which dissolves in the droplets., , Once the rain hits the ground, it percolates, through the soil and picks up more CO2 to form, a weak solution of carbonic acid:, H2O+CO 2=H 2CO3., , The infiltrating water naturally exploits any, cracks or crevices in the rock. Over long periods,, with a continuous supply of CO 2 - enriched, water, carbonate bedrock begins to dissolve., , Openings in the bedrock increase in size and, an underground drainage system begins to, develop, allowing more water to pass, further, accelerating the formation of karst. Eventually, this leads to the development of subsurface caves., •, Erosional Landforms, , A. Pools, Sinkholes, Lapies and Limestone, Pavements, , Small to medium sized round to subrounded shallow depressions called swallow, holes form on the surface of limestones through, solution. Sinkholes are very common in, limestone/karst areas. A sinkhole is an opening, more or less circular at the top and funnelshapped towards the bottom with sizes varying, in area from a few sq. m to a hectare and with, depth from a less than half a metre to thirty, metres or more. Some of these form solely, through solution action (solution sinks) and, others might startas solution forms first and if, , [40], , B. Caves, , In areas where there are alternating beds of, rocks (shales, sandstones, quartzites) with, limestones or dolomites in between or in areas, where limestones are dense, massive and, occurring as thick beds, cave formation is, prominent. Water percolates down either, through the materials or through cracks and, joints and moves horizontally along bedding, planes. It is along these bedding planes that the, limestone dissolves and long and narrow to wide, gaps called caves result. There can be a maze of, caves at different elevations depending upon the, limestone beds and intervening rocks. Caves, normally have an opening through which cave, streams are discharged. Caves having openings, at both the ends are called tunnels., • Depositional Landforms, Many depositional forms develop within the, limestone caves. The chief chemical in limestone, is calcium carbonate which is easily soluble in, carbonated water (carbon dioxide absorbed, rainwater). This calcium carbonate is deposited, , Chronicle IAS Academy

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when the water carrying it in solution evaporates, or loses its carbon dioxide as it trickles over rough, rock surfaces., A. Stalactites, Stalagmites and Pillars, , CH, IA R, S, O, N, AC I, C, AD L, E, EM, Y, , Stalactites hang as icicles of different, diameters. Normally they are broad at their bases, and taper towards the free ends showing up in, a variety of forms. Stalagmites rise up from the, floor of the caves. In fact, stalagmites form due, to dripping water from the surface or through, the thin pipe, of the stalactite, immediately below, it, , erosion forms a broad erosional platform called, a wave-cut bench or wave-cut platform. After, the constant grinding and battering, eroded, material is transported to adjacent bays to, become beaches or seaward coming to rest as a, wave-built terrace. If tectonic forces raise the, bench above the water level a marine terrace, forms. Some shorelines have several marine, terraces creating during various episodes of, uplift., , Stalagmites may take the shape of a column,, a disc, with either a smooth, rounded bulging, end or a miniature crater like depression. The, stalagmite and stalactites eventually fuse to give, rise to columns and pillars of different diameters., , Coastal Geomorphology, , •, , Coastal Geomorphology encompasses the, study of coastal processes and the evolution of, landforms., The formation and development of cliffs,, beaches, salt marshes, reefs and other coastal, landforms reflect the pressures and forces acting, upon a coastline, both natural and manmade., •, Erosional Coastal Landforms, , Some of the most spectacular scenery is, found along coastlines and produced by the, effects of wave erosion. Wave erosion undercuts, steep shorelines creating coastal cliffs., , A. Sea cliff is a vertical precipice created, by waves crashing directly on a steeply inclined, slope. Hydraulic action, abrasion, and chemical, solution all work to cut a notch at the high water, level near the base of the cliff. Constant, undercutting and erosion causes the cliffs to, retreat landward., , B. Sea caves form along lines of weakness, in cohesive but well-jointed bedrock. Sea caves, are prominent headlands where wave refraction, attacks the shore., , A sea arch forms when sea caves merge, from opposite sides of a headland. If the arch, collapses, a pillar of rock remains behind as a, sea stack., Seaward of the retreating cliffs, wave, , [41], , Depositional Landforms, , A. Beaches and Dunes, , Beaches are characteristic of shorelines that, are dominated by deposition, but may occur as, patches along even the rugged shores. Most of, the sediment making up the beaches comes from, land carried by the streams and rivers or from, wave erosion. Beaches are temporary features., The sandy beach which appears so permanent, may be reduced to a very narrow strip of coarse, pebbles in some other season., , Most of the beaches are made up of sand, sized materials. Beaches called shingle beaches, contain excessively small pebbles and even, cobbles., B. Bars, Barriers and Spits, , A ridge of sand and shingle formed in the, sea in the off-shore zone (from the position of, low tide waterline to seaward) lying, approximately parallel to the coast is called an, off-shore bar., , An off-shore bar which is exposed due to, further addition of sand is termed a barrier bar., The off-shore bars and barriers commonly form, across the mouth of a river or at the entrance of, a bay. Sometimes such barrier bars get keyed up, to one end of the bay when they are called spits, (Figure 7.15). Spits may also develop attached, , Chronicle IAS Academy

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glacier disappears. Such lakes are called cirque, or tarn lakes. There can be two or more cirques, one leading into another down below in a, stepped sequence., B. Horns and Serrated Ridges, Horns form through head ward erosion of, the cirque walls. If three or more radiating, glaciers cut headward until their cirques meet,, high, sharp pointed and steep sided peaks called, horns form. The divides between cirque side, walls or head walls get narrow because of, progressive erosion and turn into serrated or sawtoothed ridges sometimes referred to as arêtes, with very sharp crest and a zig-zag outline., , CH, IA R, S, O, N, AC I, C, AD L, E, EM, Y, , to headlands/hills. The barriers, bars and spits, at the mouth of the bay gradually extend leaving, only a small opening of the bay into the sea and, the bay will eventually develop into a lagoon., The lagoons get filled up gradually by sediment, coming from the land or from the beach itself, (aided by wind) and a broad and wide coastal, plain may develop replacing a lagoon., , C. Glacial stairways, , The advancing ice of glaciers carves out giant, stairways through the process of abrasion and, plucking of step faults coming across the path, of moving glaciers, • Deposional Landforms, , Glaciated Topography, , Glaciers have played an important role in, the shaping of landscapes in the middle and high, latitudes and in alpine environments. Their, ability to erode soil and rock, transport, sediment, and, deposit sediment, is, extraordinary. During the last glacial period, more than 50 million square kilometers of land, surface were geomorphically influenced by the, presence of glaciers., • Erosional Landforms, , A. Moraines, , Glacial erosion consists of two processes: (i), plucking or the tearing away of blocks of rock, which have become frozen into the base and, sides of a glacier, and (ii) abrasion or the wearing, away of rocks beneath a glacier by the scouring, action of the rocks embedded in the glacier., , A valley glacier carries a large amount of, rock waste called moraine. The moraine forming, along the sides of a glacier is called lateral, moraine; that along the front of a glacier is called, terminal moraine; that at the bottom of a glacier, is the ground moraine. When two glaciers join, together, their inner lateral moraines coalesce to, give a medial moraine. Terminal moraine, material is carried down-valley by the melt, waters issuing from the glacier’s snout (front), and is deposited as a layer called an outwash, plain. One of the most conspicuous features of, lowlands which have been glaciated by ice sheets, is the widespread morainic deposits. Because of, the numerous boulders in the clay these are called, boulder clay deposits., , A. Cirque, , B. Drumlins, , Cirques are the most common of landforms, in glaciated mountains. The cirques quite often, are found at the heads of glacial valleys. The, accumulated ice cuts these cirques while moving, down the mountain tops. They are deep, long, and wide troughs or basins with very steep, concave to vertically dropping high walls at its, head as well as sides. A lake of water can be, seen quite often within the cirques after the, , The swarms of rounded hummocks resulting, from the deposition of glacial till are called, drumlins. They look like inverted boat or spoon., , [42], , C. Eskers, , When glaciers melt in summer, the water, flows on the surface of the ice or seeps down, along the margins or even moves through holes, , Chronicle IAS Academy

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of meltwater, and deposits on the outwash plain,, at the terminus of the glacier. The outwash,, the sediment transported and deposited by the, melt water and that makes up the fan, is usually, poorly sorted due to the short distance traveled, before being deposited., , CH, IA R, S, O, N, AC I, C, AD L, E, EM, Y, , in the ice. These waters accumulate beneath the, glacier and flow like streams in a channel, beneath the ice. Such streams flow over the, ground (not in a valley cut in the ground) with, ice forming its banks. Very coarse materials like, boulders and blocks along with some minor, fractions of rock debris carried into this stream, settle in the valley of ice beneath the glacier and, after the ice melts can be found as a sinuous ridge, called esker., D. Outwash fan, , An outwash fan is a fan-shaped body of, sediments deposited by braided streams from, a melting glacier. Sediment locked within the, ice of the glacier, gets transported by the streams, ,


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DRAIN, AGE SY, STEM &, DRAINA, SYSTEM, PATTERNS, , IAS ACADEMY, , A CIVIL SERVICES CHRONICLE INITIATIVE, , example, Indus, Sutlej, Alaknanda and, Brahmaputra are antecedent rivers as, they originated before the upliftment of, Himalayan ranges., (b) Superimposed Drainage: It is formed, when the nature and characteristics of, the valley and the flow direction of a, consequent stream, developed on the, upper geological formation and structure, are superimposed on the lower, geological formation of entirely different characteristics. For example the river, Subarnarekha is superimposed on, Dalma Hills of Chhotanagpur Plateau, of Jharkhand., , CH, IA R, S, O, N, AC I, C, AD L, E, EM, Y, , The origin and evolution of any drainage, system in a particular region are determined and, controlled by two factors- (a) Nature of original, surface and slope (b) Geological structure., , CHRONICLE, , Streams or drainage systems are divided in, two broad categoriesI. Sequent Drainage System, , (a) Consequent Stream: The upland forms, the catchment area of rivers, where precipitation is heaviest and where there is, a slope down which the run off can, flow. The initial stream that exists as a, consequence of the slope is called the, consequent stream. Most of the streams,, draining the coastal plains of India are, of this type., (b) Subsequent Stream: When the master, consequent stream is joined by its tributary at right angles, it is called subsequent stream. For example, the river Son,, a tributary of the Ganga is a subsequent, stream., (c) Obsequent Streams: The stream which, flows following the direction of the slope, opposite to master consequent stream., For example the Mahabharata Range of, Lesser Himalayas has originated several, streams from its northern slope which, join the subsequent stream from the direction opposite to the consequent stream, e.g. Sun Kosi runs west to east as, obsequent stream and the master consequent streams like Ganga and Yamuna, flow in the opposite direction., (d) Resequent Streams: Such streams follow the direction of master consequent, stream and meet the subsequent streams, at right angles., II. Insequent Drainage System: The streams, which do not follow the regional slopes and, drain across the geological structures are, called insequent or inconsequent streams., (a) Antecedent Drainage: The stream, which originated before the upliftment, of the surface on which they flow. For, , [44], , Drainage Patterns, , (1) Dendritic Drainage: A drainage pattern, consisting of a single main stream with, tributaries, resembling the branches of a, tree. This pattern develops perfectly where, the underlying rocks are of a uniform type, and the structures are simple., (2) Trellis Drainage: It is a rectangular, pattern of river channels. It may develop, where a slope is crossed at right angles by, the strike of alternating hard and soft rock, strata. Long streams develop along the soft, rock strata and the short streams follow, the slope., (3) Radial Drainage: Here the streams radiate, from a central peak or upland mass in all, directions. Dome structures commonly, develop radial drainage as in the English, Lake District of England. The entire, drainage network of Sri Lanka, Hazaribagh, Plateau, Panchet Hills and Maikal Range, are of such type., (4) Rectangular Drainage: A pattern of, drainage consisting of two main directions, of flow at right angles to one another. This, pattern is common where the streams, follow the fault lines., (5) Annular Drainage: Here streams follow, roughly in circular pattern. Such patterns, , Chronicle IAS Academy

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(8) Centripetal Drainage: When the streams, converge at a point, which is generally a, depression or a basin they form centripetal, or inland drainage pattern., , (6) Parallel Drainage: A pattern in which the, main streams and tributaries follow, virtually parallel courses. This develops, where there is a strong structural control, in one direction or where strata are gently, dipping., , (9) Herringbone Drainage: When the, consequent streams are developed in the, longitudinal parallel valley while the, tributaries, after originating from the hill, slopes of the bordering parallel ridges, join, the longitudinal consequents almost at right, angle, it is known as herringbone pattern, or rib pattern. Jhelum River in the Vale of, Kashmir receives many tributaries from, both the sides, following the rib pattern., , CH, IA R, S, O, N, AC I, C, AD L, E, EM, Y, , are usually produced on domed structures, where the rivers follow the outcrops of, weaker beds of rock in an alternating band, of hard and soft beds., , (7) Barbed Drainage: In this pattern the, tributaries flow in opposite direction to their, master streams. The tributaries join their, master streams in a hook-shaped bend., Such pattern is generally developed due to, river capture., ,


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CHRONICLE, , ATMOSPHERE, , IAS ACADEMY, , A CIVIL SERVICES CHRONICLE INITIATIVE, , Some of the gases behave like permanent, atmospheric components as they remain in fix, proportion of the total gas volume. Two gases,, nitrogen and oxygen constitute about 99% of the, clean dry air. The deep layer through which the, gaseous composition of the atmosphere is, generally homogeneous is called the, “homosphere”. At higher altitude, the chemical, constituents of air changes considerably and this, layer is known as “heterosphere”., , CH, IA R, S, O, N, AC I, C, AD L, E, EM, Y, Composition of Atmosphere, , The atmosphere, a mixture of many gases,, contains huge amount of solid and liquid, particles, collectively known as “aerosols”. Pure, dry air consists mainly of Nitrogen (78%),, Oxygen (21%), Argon (0.93%), Carbon dioxide, (0.03%), Hydrogen, Helium and Ozone. Besides,, water vapour, dust particles, smoke, salts are also, present in air in varying quantities. As a result,, the composition of air is never constant and, varies from time to time and place to place., , Data on Composition of Atmosphere, , Gases, , Volume, , Nitrogen, , 78.084%, , Height, , upto 100 km, , Characteristics and Functions, , Not very active chemically, dilutant for, oxygen, regulates, , combustion, Enters protein molecules via Soil planets, , Oxygen, , 20.946%, , upto 100 km, , chemically active combines readily with, , other elements, Released by plants in, , photosynthesis, taken up by plants and, animals in respiration., , [46], , Argon, Carbon-Dioxide, , 0.934%, 0.039%, , —, upto 50 km, , Chemically inactive, Present in tiny portion, absorbs heat radiation from the earth in, the atmosphere, , Neon, , 0.001818%, , —-, , —-, , Helium, , 0.000524%, , —, , —-, , Methane, , 0.000179%, , —, , —-, , Krypton, , 0.000114%, , —, , —, , Hydrogen, , 0.000055%, , —, , —-, , Nitrous Oxide, , 0.00003%, , —, , —-, , Carbon Monoxide 0.00001%, , —, , —-, , Xenon, , 9 × 10"6%, , 30 to 50 km, , —-, , Ozone, , 7 × 10"6%, , 20 to 45 km, , Absorbs Ultra violet rays of Sun, , Nitrogen Dioxide, , 2 × 10"6%, , —, , —-, , Chronicle IAS Academy

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Water vapour, , 0.40% over, , upto 8km, , Recycles in Evaporation –, Condensation, , Full atmosphere, Typically 1%-4%, , CH, IA R, S, O, N, AC I, C, AD L, E, EM, Y, , at surface, , Dust particles, , —, , Lower layers Gives the colour to sky (Blue) by, Scattering, decides the, , intensity of sunrays, acts as, hygroscopic nuclei, , Structure of the Atmosphere, , The atmosphere consists of almost concentric, layers of air with varying density and, temperature. Density is highest on the earth’s, surface and goes on decreasing upwards., , The atmosphere can be divided into following, layers:, A. Troposphere:, , The lowest layer of the atmosphere extending, to an average altitude of 10 km, varying between, 18 km above the equator and 8 km above poles., It is a region of clouds, water vapour and, weather. Troposphere literally means the region, of mixing. It contains about 75 percent of the, total mass of the atmosphere and practically all, the moisture and dust particles., , Temperature decreases at the rate of 6°C per, km of height above Sea level. The temperature, at the end of the troposphere is around -80°C., The boundary line separating troposphere from, stratosphere is known as Tropopause., , Stratosphere: The region above the, tropopause extending up to 50 km above the, earth is known as Stratosphere. Temperature, ceases to fall with the increase in height at this, level. The temperature at tropopause is about 80°C over the equator and about - 45°C over the, poles., , In the lower part of the stratosphere i.e., upto height of 20 km, temperature remains, constant. Afterwards it gradually increases upto, a height of 50 km because of the presence of, ozone layer. Clouds are almost absent and there, is little dust or water vapour. The air movements, are almost horizontal. The Stratospheric layer, provides ideal conditions for flying large, aeroplanes. Cirrus clouds, called the “mother of, pearl clouds”, occasionally form in the lower, stratosphere. Above the tropopause no visible, weather phenomena ever occur. The upper, boundary of the stratosphere is called, “Stratopause”., , B. Mesosphere:, , It exists over the stratosphere extending upto, a height of about 80 km above the earth., Temperature sharply decreases with height and, reaches the lowest level of -100°C at the top. Bulk, of the meteors is destroyed in this region. Because, of the preponderance of chemical processes this, sphere is sometimes called the ‘Chemosphere’., , C. Ionosphere:, , It is located between 80 and 400 km. It is an, electrically charged layer. Radio waves, transmitted from the earth are reflected back by, this layer. Temperature again starts increasing, , [47], , Chronicle IAS Academy

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with the height because of radiation from the, Sun. At this level, the ionization of atmosphere, begins to occur. This layer was first of all, discovered by Kennelly and Heaviside., Layers of Ionosphere:, , 2. Angle of Incidence: The oblique rays have, to travel longer distance through the, atmosphere before they strike the surface, of the earth and large amount of energy is, lost by various processes of reflection,, absorption, scattering, etc. At mid-day the, intensity of insolation is maximum. In, winter and high latitudes the insolation, received is small., , CH, IA R, S, O, N, AC I, C, AD L, E, EM, Y, , (i) D-Layer:, It is the lowest layer of, Ionosphere (60 km to 90 km). It reflects, low-frequency radio waves but absorbs, medium and high frequency waves. It, disappears as soon as the sun sets., , farther from the sun and this position is, called ‘aphelion’. Hence the amount of, incoming solar radiation is about 7 percent, more in January., , (ii) E-Layer: It extends from 90 km to 120 km, and called as “Kennelly-Heaviside layer”., It reflects the medium and high frequency, radio waves. This layer also does not exist, at night., , (iii)F-Layer: The F layer, also known as the, Appleton layer extends from about 200, km to more than 500 km above the surface, of Earth. This layer is important in long, distance radio communication. It reflects, the medium and high frequency radio, waves., (iv) G-Layer: This is the uppermost part of, Ionosphere. Because of the interaction of, ultraviolet photons with nitrogen atoms,, free electrons are produced in this layer., D. Exosphere/Thermosphere:, , It is the uppermost layer of the atmosphere, extending beyond the ionosphere above a height, of 400 kilometres. This layer is extremely rarified, and gradually merges with the outer space., Hydrogen and helium gases dominate this, region. Here the temperature may reach a high, value of about 5568°C., , Insolation/ Solar Radiation, , Incoming solar radiation is known as, Isolation and it is received in the form of short, waves. The earth’s surface receives the radiant, energy at the rate of 2 calories per sq. cm. per, minute., Factors effecting the distribution of Insolation:, , 1. Distance between Earth & Sun: The, average distance between these two bodies, is about 149 million km. On January 3 the, earth comes closer to the sun, called, “perihelion”. On July 4, the earth is little, , [48], , 3. Duration of Sunshine: The most important, causes for the variation in the amount of, solar energy reaching the earth are the, seasonal changes in the angle at which the, sun’s rays strike the surface and the length, of the day., Summer Solstice: 21st June, , Winter Solstice: 22nd December, , Autumnal Equinox: 23rd September, Spring Equinox:, , 21st March., , 4. Solar Constant: When the sun-spots appear, in larger number, the intensity of the solar, radiation received is increased. The number, of sunspot changes on a regular basis in a, cycle of 11 years., 5. Transparency of Atmosphere: Reflection, from dust, salt, smoke particles, etc returns, short wave radiation to space. Similarly, cloud tops deplete the amount of insolation., Transparency of the atmosphere is closely, related to the latitudes. In the higher, latitudes the sun’s ray are more oblique. In, winter when the altitude of the sun is, relatively lower, there is greater loss of, incoming solar radiation than in summer., , Heat Budget, , The average temperature of the earth, remains rather constant. It has been possible, because of the balance between the amount of, incoming solar radiation and the amount of, terrestrial radiation returned to space. This, balance of incoming and outgoing radiation has, been termed as the earth’s heat budget., Let us assume that the total heat received at, the top of the atmosphere is 100 units. About 35, , Chronicle IAS Academy

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units are reflected back to space even before, reaching the earth’s surface. Of these, 27 units, are reflected back from the top of the clouds and, 2 units from the snow and ice-covered areas of, the earth. The reflected amount of radiation is, called the Albedo of Earth., , 4. Convection & Advection: Heat gained by, the layers of air at or near the earth’s surface, from radiation or conduction is transferred, to the upper atmospheric layers by the, process of convection. Whereas the term, convection is used for vertical motion in, the atmosphere, the term advection is used, for horizontal transport of heat. Advection, is responsible for slow heat transfer from, the equatorial to the polar regions. “Loo”, is the example of advection., , CH, IA R, S, O, N, AC I, C, AD L, E, EM, Y, , The remaining 65 units are absorbed, 14, units within the atmosphere and 51 units by the, earth’s surface. The earth radiates back 51 units, in the form of terrestrial radiation. Of these, 17, units are radiated to space directly and the, remaining 34 units are absorbed by the, atmosphere - 6 units absorbed directly by the, atmosphere, 9 units through convection and, turbulence and 19 units through latent heat of, condensation. About 48 units absorbed by the, atmosphere (14 units from insolation and 34, units from terrestrial radiation) and also radiated, back into the space. Thus the total radiation, returning from the earth and the atmosphere, respectively is 17 + 48 = 65 units which balance, the total of 65 units received from the sun. Hence, the heat balance of the earth is always, maintained., , its energy supply from the earth and not, directly from the sun., , Mechanism of Heat Transfer, , There are certain processes which play, significant role in the transfer of energy from the, earth surface to its atmosphere. The atmosphere, is heated and cooled by the following processes:, 1. Absorption by Atmosphere: About 14, percent of insolation is directly absorbed, by dust particles and water vapour. Nearly, 50 percent of this absorption occurs in the, lower 2 km of air., 2. Conduction: When two bodies of unequal, temperature are in contact with one, another, there is a flow of energy from the, warmer to the cooler body, until both the, bodies attain the same temperature. Since, air is very poor conductor of heat, it affects, only the lowermost layer of the air. It is, least important in the heat transfer for the, atmosphere as a whole., 3. Terrestrial Radiation: Radiant solar energy, reaches the earth’s surface in the form of, short electro-magnetic waves but is radiated, in the form of long waves or infrared, radiation. Gases and water vapour are, almost transparent to short wave radiation., Thus atmosphere receives a larger part of, , [49], , 5. Latent Heat of Condensation: Half of the, insolation received at the ocean surface is, consumed in the evaporation of surface, water. When the water vapour is, condensed, the latent heat is again released, into the atmosphere and is used in heating, it., , 6. Expansion and Compression of Air:, Whenever air moves upward it passes, through region of successively lower, pressure and whenever descends the viceversa. Rising air expands and cools, adiabatically. The descending air is, compressed and heated. Thus the, temperature changes brought about in the, air aloft simply due to changes in the air, pressure are very important in the heating, or cooling of the atmosphere., , Factors Influencing Temperature, , 1. Latitude: In general the temperature, decreases from the equator to the poles as, per the altitude of the mid-day sun., , 2. Altitude: Temperature falls by 6.5° C for, every 1 km ascent., , 3. Ocean Currents: Warm ocean currents,, moving polewards, carry tropical warmth, into the high latitude. This warming, influence is very marked in latitudes 40° to, 65° on the west side of the continents,, especially along the sea-board of Western, Europe. Cold currents have fewer effects, upon temperature because they usually lie, under offshore winds. However, there are, some exceptions e.g. the coast of Labrador,, where the summer temperatures are, lowered by on shore winds which blow, over the cold Labrador current., , Chronicle IAS Academy

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Between January and July all the isotherms, in the northern hemisphere move northward., This movement of isotherm is greater over the, land than over the oceans. The highest, temperatures for both January and July are over, the continents. The isotherms bend poleward, over the ocean but equatorward over the, continent in January. The isotherms bend, equatorward over the ocean but poleward over, the continents in July., , CH, IA R, S, O, N, AC I, C, AD L, E, EM, Y, , 4. Distance from Sea: The sun’s heat is, absorbed and released more slowly by, water than by the land. So the sea-adjoining, areas experience warming and cooling, effects. The climatic regions whose, temperatures are influenced greatly by the, sea are called “maritime or oceanic or, insular, climate”., Climate, whose, temperature is greatly influenced by the, remoteness from the sea are called, “continental climate”, , 5. Winds: In temperate latitudes, prevailing, winds from the land lower the winter, temperature but raise the summer, temperature and the prevailing winds from, the sea raise the winter temperature but, lower the summer temperature. In tropical, latitudes, on-shore winds modify the, temperature of the coastal regions. Local, winds sometimes produce rapid upward, or downward changes in the temperature., , 6. Cloud Cover and Humidity: Clouds reduce, the amount of solar radiation reaching the, earth’s surface and the amount of earth, radiation leaving the earth’s surface. The, heavy cloud cover of equatorial regions, doesn’t allow a day temperature over 30°C., In hot desert the absence of clouds results, in very high day temperature of over 38°C, and clear sky allows the earth heat to escape, freely resulting in fall of temperature up to, 20°C at night., 7. Aspects: South facing slopes are warmer, than north-facing slopes in the Northern, Hemisphere while in the Southern, Hemisphere the reverse is true. In the high, latitude the mid-day sun is at a low angle, in winter and hence blocks of flats are, usually built far apart to enable all the flats, to receive some sunshine., 8. Length of Day: The length of day also, influences the temperature., , 9. Amount of Dust and Other Impurities in, the Air: In the industrial areas and large, urban centres, the polluted particles are, abundant in the air. These particles not only, absorb larger amount of insolation but also, greatly absorb the terrestrial radiation., Hence these areas show larger temperature, than the surrounding areas and are, converted into “Heat Islands”., , [50], , The seasonal changes are less marked over, the southern continents than over the northern, ones. The range of temperature increases from, the equator to the poles. The coastal regions have, a smaller range of temperature than the, continental interiors. The range of temperature, on the eastern sides of Asia and North America, is greater than on the Western side in the same, latitude., Temperature Anomaly: Temperature varies, even along the same parallel of latitude because, of the factors like altitude, land and water, contrasts, prevailing winds and ocean currents., The difference between the mean temperature, of any place and the mean temperature of its, parallel is called the Temperature Anomaly or, Thermal Anomaly. It therefore, expresses, deviation from the normal., Inversion of Temperature: Air temperature, also varies according to the altitude. At higher, altitudes air becomes less dense; it is unable to, absorb heat, resulting in colder air temperature., The normal drop of temperature with height is, known as normal lapse rate which is 6.4°C per, km on an average. Temperature inversion is the, situation where there is increase in temperature, with height before beginning to drop into the, normal lapse rate. In cases where the, temperature remains the same with increase of, altitude, the layer of atmosphere is called, Isothermal., , Humidity, , It refers to the content of water vapour, present in air in gaseous form at a particular time, and place. It is measured through an instrument, called ‘hygrometer.’, •, , Absolute Humidity: The total weight of, moisture content or water vapour per, volume of air at definite temperature is, , Chronicle IAS Academy

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•, , particles or aerosols and these particles are, known as “hygroscopic nuclei”., Condensation in Atmosphere: The cooling, needed to produce condensation can occur in a, number of ways:, 1. Relatively warm moist air moving over a, colder surface., , CH, IA R, S, O, N, AC I, C, AD L, E, EM, Y, , •, , called absolute humidity., Specific Humidity: It is defined as the, mass of water vapour in grams contained in a kilogram of air and it represents the actual quantity of moisture, present in a definite air., Relative Humidity: It is defined as a, ratio of the amount of water vapour, actually present in the air having definite volume and temperature (i.e. absolute humidity) to the maximum amount, the air can hold at that temperature (i.e., humidity capacity)., , Dew point: It is the temperature at which a, parcel of air would have to be cooled in order to, reach saturation. The favourable conditions are, moist air, light winds and clear night skies to, ensure maximum cooling by radiation., Evaporation:, , Evaporation can be defined as the process, by which liquid water is converted into a gaseous, state. Evaporation can only occur when water, is available. It also requires that the humidity of, the atmosphere be less than the evaporating, surface (at 100% relative humidity there is no, more evaporation). The evaporation process, requires large amounts of energy. For example,, the evaporation of one gram of water at a, temperature of 100° Celsius requires 540 calories, of heat energy (600 calories at 0° Celsius)., Condensation:, , In this process the water vapour is changed, into liquid state. If air is cooled below its dew, point, some of air’s water vapour becomes liquid., Thus any further cooling of saturated air starts, the process of condensation. Condensation, depends upon two factors - relative humidity of, air and degree of cooling., Necessary conditions for condensation are:, , 1. The air must be saturated. Saturation, occurs either when the air is cooled below, the dew point or when vapour is added to, the air., 2. There must be a surface on which the water, vapour may condense. For dew or frost,, solid objects at the ground do this work., But when the condensation occurs in the, air, the surface is provided by the dust, , [51], , 2. The mixing of warm, moist unsaturated air, with colder unsaturated air., 3. Radiative cooling from the land surface., 4. Upward motion of air., , Condensation Nuclei: The particles which, serve as condensation nuclei are hygroscopic,, that is, they have affinity for water., Adiabatic Lapse Rate: The rate at which, temperature decreases in rising and expanding, as parcel is known as the adiabatic lapse rate., Until condensation occurs, temperature fall at, the rate of about 9.8°C per/km. This is known, as dry adiabatic lapse., , Fog, , It is microscopically small drops of, condensed water suspended in the air near the, earth surface in sufficient number. It reduces the, horizontal visibility to less than 1 km. For aviation, purpose the reporting of fog is done only when, the visibility is less than 9 km. On the basis of, appearance the fogs may be classified as1. Smog: It is formed in the polluted air of, large industrial centres having large, number of soot and dust particles, generally, dirty and mixed with smoke., , 2. Haze: It limits the visibility between 2 km, and 5 km., 3. Mist: It is intermediate between fog and, haze (visibility between 1 and 2 km)., , 4. Smaze: It is an admixture of smoke and, haze., 5. Frost-Smoke: It is formed in the Arctic, region when the air temperature falls much, below the freezing point. It is kind of fog, having innumerable ice particles and supercooled water droplets is formed by the, process of condensation. It generally takes, place on the surface of water bodies and, later carried over the land by winds., , Chronicle IAS Academy

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Zero Visibility: When the object cannot be, seen easily beyond 25 m., ‘9’ Visibility: When the object can be seen, easily upto 50 km, , 4. Cumulo-nimbus: Heavy and dense cloud, in the form of anvil; they are associated, with heavy rainfall, thunder, lightning and, hail; have flat top and a flat base; it, obstructs the sun., , CH, IA R, S, O, N, AC I, C, AD L, E, EM, Y, , Clouds, , sharp outlines; develop vertically in the, form of rising mounds; generally found in, the day time over land areas; they dissipate, at night., , Clouds are aggregates of innumerable tiny, water droplets, ice particles or mixture of both, in air generally above ground surface. On the, basis of height clouds are classified as under:, A. High Clouds (mean height 6 to 13 km):, , 1. Cirrus: Detached clouds; fibrous (hair like), silky appearance composed of ice crystals;, do not give precipitation., , 2. Cirro-cumulus: Thin, white patch; sheet or, layer of cloud; often connected with cirrus, or cirro-stratus clouds; when arranged, uniformly it forms a “mackerel sky”., , 3. Cirro-stratus: Transparent, whitish cloud, of fibrous or smooth appearance; produces, “halo” phenomena around the sun and, moon; mainly formed of ice-crystals., , B. Middle Clouds (mean height 2 to 6 km.):, , 1. Alto-cumulus: Do not produce “halos”;, have dark shading on their under surface;, also referred as “sheep clouds”; composed, of super-cooled liquid droplets., , 2. Alto-stratus: The sun may be totally, obscured but “halos” are never seen;, shadow on the ground is never cast;, precipitation may fall either as fine drizzle, or snow., , 3., , Nimbo-stratus: A low cloud form and, may be thousands of feet thick; it is a rain,, snow or sleet cloud; never accompanied by, lightening, thunder or hail., , C. Low Clouds (mean height 0 to 2 km.):, , 1. Strato-cumulus: A low cloud layer, consisting of large lumpy masses or rolls of, dull grey colour with brighter interstices., , 2. Stratus: A fairly uniform base which may, give drizzle, ice-prisms or snow grains; sky, may be completely covered by this cloud;, difficult to differentiate between high fog, and stratus., 3. Cumulus: Detached dense clouds with, , [52], , Precipitation, , It is the process by which condensed water, vapour falls to the earth’s surface as rainfall,, snowfall and other forms. On the basis of its, origin, precipitation may be classified into three, main types:, 1. Convectional Precipitation: It is caused, when moist winds are drawn into the, convection currents of a hot region. It, generally occurs in equatorial region. The, thundery rain of a summer afternoon is a, typical example., 2. Orographic Precipitation: It is caused by, the surface relief of the land, mainly, by, the presence of mountain range. There is, heavy rain on the windward side., Cyclonic Precipitation: It is associated with, the passage of a cyclone or depression., , Forms of Precipitation, , Rain: Of liquid water particles in the form, of drops of more than 0.5 mm dia., Drizzle: Fine drops of water (diameter less, than 0.5 mm), very close to one another., Snow: White and opaque grains of ice., Sleet: Mixture of rain and snow, , Hail: small pieces of ice with a diameter, ranging from 5 to 50 mm., , Rainfall, , When precipitation is in the form of water, drops, we call it rainfall. Only when, temperature of water vapour is above 0°C,, rainfall will occur. At sub-zero level, temperatures, snowfall will occur. Main, determinants of rainfall are- latitude, distance, from the sea, direction of winds, proximity of, mountains and seasons. The regions of heavy, rainfall in the world are - Equatorial regions,, , Chronicle IAS Academy

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Tropical Monsoon regions and mid-latitude West, Margin regions. Regions of low rainfall (below, 25 cm annual) are- tropical desert, mid-latitude, deserts and Polar Regions., , 1. Equatorial regions: The Amazon and the, Congo basins, Malaysia, Indonesia and New, Guinea., 2. Tropical Monsoon regions: Parts of India,, South-east Asia and South China., , CH, IA R, S, O, N, AC I, C, AD L, E, EM, Y, , World Distribution of rainfall: After, examining the latitudinal pattern of distribution, of rainfall it will be seen that the maximum is, received in the equatorial zone and the minimum, is in the Polar Regions. A secondary maximum, lies in the belt of 40°–60° N and 40°–60° S and a, secondary minimum occurs around 30° N and, 30° S latitudes. This pattern of rainfall, distribution is closely related to the distribution, of major pressure belts of the world. The two, zones of maximum precipitation are related to, the equatorial low pressure and sub-polar low, pressure. These low pressure belts are regions of, ascending air and therefore precipitation is, greater than elsewhere. The belts of minimum, precipitation are zones of polar high pressure, and subtropical high pressure. As the capacity, to hold water vapour decreases sharply with, temperature, precipitation is generally higher in, the low latitudes than in the high latitudes., , (a) The regions of heavy precipitation (more, than 150 cm.):, , This broad latitudinal pattern is modified by, the distribution of continents and oceans, and, the direction of prevailing winds. Winds blowing, from the oceans towards the landmasses are, called on shore winds. Such winds are moisture, laden and give rainfall along the coast. When, winds blow from the land masses towards the, oceans, they are called off-shore winds. These, are not rain bearing winds., In the belt of trade winds, there is maximum, precipitation in the eastern margins of continents, as the easterly winds blow from the oceans. In, this belt rainfall decreases towards the west. The, western margins of continents are deserts. These, are the tropical deserts of the world., , 3. Mid-latitude West Margin regions: Coastal, regions of British Columbia, North-west, Europe, South Chile and South Island of, New Zealand., , (b) Moderate rainfall of 100 to 150 cm per, year is received in the eastern margins of, continents in the trade-wind belt. These are, the sub-tropical eastern margins of China,, the U.S.A., Brazil, South Africa and, Australia., (c) Regions of extremely low rainfall (less, than 25 cm.):, 1. Tropical deserts Western margins of, continents in the trade wind belt–, Californian desert in the United States,, Atacama, Kalahari, southern Africa,, Sahara, Arabia and then in Afro Asia, and, West Australia., , 2. Mid-latitude desert in the interiors of large, continents such as Asia and North America., 3. Polar regions., , Pressure & Wind, , Wind can be defined as air in motion. The, principal cause of winds is the difference in, pressure. Air always moves from areas of high, pressure to those with low pressure. The slope, of the pressure from high to low is known as the, pressure gradient and the direction of this, gradient decides the direction of the winds., , In the mid-latitudes, the westerly winds give, maximum “rainfall to the western margins of, continents. Rainfall decreases gradually towards, the east and the interiors of large continents are, dry. These are mid-latitude deserts., , Owing to the earth’s rotation, all the winds, are deflected to the right in the northern, hemisphere and to the left in the southern, hemisphere. This is referred to as the Ferrel’s Law, and the force occuring due to the rotation of the, earth is called the Coriolis force., , The location of mountain ranges with, reference to prevailing winds also influences the, distribution of precipitation. Maximum, precipitation is received where the mountain, ranges lie right across the path of prevailing, winds e.g. the Western Ghats in India., , Buys Ballot’s Law: In northern hemisphere,, if a person stands with his back to the wind, low, pressure lies to his left and high pressure lies to, his right. In S-Hemisphere it is reversed since the, Coriolis deflection is to his left., , [53], , Chronicle IAS Academy

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Types of winds:, (i) Planetary winds or Prevailing winds; Trade, winds, Westerlies and Easterlies., (ii) Periodic winds: Land breeze, Sea breeze &, Monsoon winds., , Summer Monsoon: During summer, a, thermal low is developed over southern Asia in, the lower levels of the atmosphere. From the, Indian Ocean and the south western Pacific,, warm humid air moves northward and north, westward into Asia passing over India, Indo, China and China. This summer monsoon is, accompanied by heavy rainfall in south-east, Asia., , CH, IA R, S, O, N, AC I, C, AD L, E, EM, Y, , (iii) Local winds: Loo, Fohn, Chinook, Mistral, and Jet Streams., , seasonal reversal of direction. The monsoon, winds blow over India, Pakistan, Bangladesh,, Burma, Sri Lanka, Arabian sea, Bay of Bengal,, S.E. Asia, N. Australia, China and Japan., , (iv) Atmospheric Disturbances: Tropical, Cyclones and Temperate Cyclones., , I. Planetary Winds: The wind systems that, are bound to occur at the global level on any, planet having an atmosphere and rotating about, its axis. The specific characteristics of trade, winds, Westerlies and Easterlies may be, determined by several conditions but the broad, features are constant over the globe., Trade Winds: These winds blow from the, subtropical high pressure towards the equatorial, region of low pressure regularly throughout the, year. It brings little rain except on the line of, convergence of the two trade wind systems., , Westerlies: The Westerly winds are those, which blow with great frequency from the Horse, latitudes towards the Polar region throughout, the year with varying intensity and cause rain, near the polar regions. Westerlies are stronger, in the Southern Hemisphere because of the vast, expanse of ocean waters. Owing to their, ferocious nature, they are also described as, “Roaring Forties”, “Furious Fifties” and, “Shrieking Sixties” in southern hemisphere., Doldrums: Also known as Intertropical, convergence, it is the equatorial belt of low, atmospheric pressure where the north-east and, south east Trade winds converge. It is a region, of calmness, the calm periodically broken by, storms, accompanied by heavy rains., Horse Latitude: They are the subtropical, belts of high atmospheric pressure over the, oceans (near 30° latitude) between the regions, of trade winds and Westerlies. They are regions, of calm, light variable winds and dry air., II. Periodic Winds:, , Monsoon: The word monsoon has been, derived from the Arabic word “Mausim” which, means season. The monsoon winds thus refer to, the wind systems that have a pronounced, , [54], , Winter Monsoon: The Winter monsoon is a, gentle drift of air in which the winds generally, blow from the north east. Retreating monsoon, causes sporadic rainfall especially in the northeastern parts and Tamil Nadu coastal areas of, India. Outside India, in the East Asian countries, e.g. China and Japan, the winter monsoon is, stronger than the summer monsoon., III. Local Winds: There are winds that, develop as a result of local conditions in, temperature and pressure of air. They affect, small areas in the lowest levels of Troposphere., Loo: A very hot and dry wind (hot wave) in, the North Western India and Pakistan which, blows from the west in the afternoon of May and, June and may cause sunstroke., Chinook and Fohn: Warm and dry local, winds, also called ‘snow-eater’, blow on the, leeward sides of the mountains. These are called, Chinook in the USA and Fohn in Switzerland., Harmattan: The warm and dry winds, blowing from north-east and east to west in the, eastern parts of Sahara desert are called, Harmattan. Similar winds are called ‘brick, fielder’ in Australia, ‘blackroller’ in USA,, ‘Shamal’ in Mesopotamia and Persian Gulf and, ‘Norwesters’ in Newzealand., Sirrocco: It is a warm, dry and dusty wind, which blows in northward direction from, Sahara desert and after crossing Mediterranean, Sea reaches Italy, Spain etc. Similar winds are, known as ‘Khamsin’ in Egypt, ‘Gibli’ in Libya,, ‘Chilli’ in Tunisia, and ‘Simoom’ in Arabia., , Chronicle IAS Academy

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Khalid\D:\Campus 100\Geo, Local and Regional Winds, Region / Country, , Nature, , 1. Fohn, , Alps / Europe (Germany), , Dry / Warm, , 2. Chinook, , Rockies, U.S.A. & Canada, , Dry / Warm, , CH, IA R, S, O, N, AC I, C, AD L, E, EM, Y, , Winds, , 3. Mistral, , Alps /France to Mediterranean Sea, , Dry / Cold, , 4. Sirocco, , N. Africa / Sicily / Italy, , Dry / Hot, , 5. Khamsin, , Egypt / N. Africa, , Dry / Hot, , 6. Harmattan, , W. Africa / Ghana / Nigeria, , Dry / Hot, , 7. Norwesters, , Bengal / Assam / India, , Moist / Hot, , 8. Berg, , South Africa, , Dry / Cold, , 9. Pampero, , Argentina, , Dry / Cold, , 10. Zonda, , Chile / Peru / Brazil/ Argentina, , Dry / Warm, , 11. Brick Fielder, , Australia, , Dry / Hot, , 12. Buran, , Siberia / Russia, , Dry / Cold, , 13. Bora, , Italy / Yugoslavia (To Adriatic Sea), , Dry / Cold, , 14. Southerly Buster, , Australia, , Dry / Cold, , 15. Samun, , Persia / Iran, , Dry / Hot, , 16. Nevadas, , Ecuador, , Dry / Hot, , 17. Norwesters, , New Zealand (South Island), , Dry / Hot, , 18. Leveche, , Algeria / Morocco, , Dry / Hot, , 19. Blizzard, , Siberia, Canada and USA., , Dry / Cold (Snow laden), , 20. Bise, , France, , Dry / Cold, , 21. Levanter, , Spain, , Dry / Cold, , 22. Santa Ana, , USA, , Dry / Warm, , 23. Yamo, , Japan, , Dry / Warm, , 24. Tramontane, , Central Europe, , Dry / Warm, , Diurnal Variation in, , Atmospheric Circulation, , Diurnal wind systems occur frequently in, many tropical areas. They also occur in other, areas but rather irregularly and less frequently., There are two major types of diurnal wind, systems:, , 1. Land and Sea Breezes: These occur along, the coast or near large water bodies. They, , [55], , are caused by the thermal differences, between the land and water surface., , Sea Breeze: Takes place during the day, when a local thermal low develops over the land, with the winds blowing from the sea towards, the land., Land Breeze: Take place during the night, when the land cools off rapidly while the sea is, still warm. Then the winds blow from the land, towards the sea., , Chronicle IAS Academy

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6. The source of energy for the maintenance, of tropical cyclones is the latent heat of, condensation., C. Tornadoes:, 1. The most violent, troposphere., , storms, , of, , lower, , CH, IA R, S, O, N, AC I, C, AD L, E, EM, Y, , 2. Mountain (Katabatic) and Valley, (Anabatic) Winds: During the day when, insolation is intense the more exposed hill, slopes are heated more than the valley, bottoms. Thus winds blow upward from, the valley. These are valley or anabatic, (upslope) winds. The high lands cool off, rather rapidly because of terrestrial, radiation losses. Cold and dense air then, drains downslope into valleys. Such cold, winds are known as mountain or Katabatic, winds., , Cyclones, , This is a depression in a mass of air whose, isobars form an oval or circular shape with low, pressure at the centre. The air converges at the, centre and then rises. The winds rotate anti-clock, wise in the northern hemisphere while in the, southern hemisphere the circular movement of, winds is in a clockwise direction. Moving, cyclones are of three types:, A. Extratropical Cyclones:, , 2. The funnel shape cloud extends, downwards from the base of cumulonimbus, cloud layer., 3. Tornadoes which occur in conjunction with, scattered thunderstorms are usually shortlived and have irregular paths., 4. The circulation of wind is usually in a, counter clock wise direction; wind velocities, are very high almost about 100 m/sec., 5. Occur frequently east of the Rockies, Mountains in the Mississippi Basin in USA,, in eastern India and east of the Andes, Mountain., 6. At sea, tornadoes become water spouts, having same characteristic except that they, are small in diameter., , 1. Typical of middle and high latitudes;, usually called a depression., , Anti-cyclones, , 2. This cyclone varies in diameter from 200, km to 300 km., , It is opposite to the cyclones where two types, of anticyclones are observed:, , 3. Appearance may be circular or elongated, or may be broad shallow, week depressions., , 1. Relatively Stationary, also called as warm, anticyclones., , 4. Usually travel in groups or “Families” from, the West to East., , 2. Travelling anticyclones, which are also, called as cold anticyclones, are mainly, found in the high latitude within, continental polar air., , 5. Average speed is about 30-50 km per hour., B. Tropical Cyclones:, , 1. Tropical Cyclones are found in low, latitudes over oceans., 2. It is almost circular centre of extremely low, pressure into which winds spiral., , 3. The diameter of the storm ranges from 160, to 650 km and the velocity of the wind, varies from a minimum of about 120 to, 200 km per hour., 4. The life span of a tropical cyclone is about, a week and the storm travels at the rate of, 15-30 km per hour., , 3. Barometric pressure is highest at its centre, and decreases outward. Anticyclonic wind, system blows out from the centre and, because of the Coriolis Effect it has a, clockwise circulation in the Northern, hemisphere and counter clockwise in, Southern hemisphere., , Beaufort scale: In 1806 “Admiral Beaufort”, proposed a scale for estimating the wind velocity, and developed the Beaufort scale., , 5. Tropical cyclones are characterized by, violent winds and heavy rains., , [56], , Chronicle IAS Academy

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Wind, , Speed, , Common effects, , No., , (Mph), , 0, , Calm, , 0, , Smoke rises vertically., , 1, , Light air, , 2, , Wind vanes not applicable., , 2, , Light Breeze, , 5, , Wind felt on the face., , 3, , Gentle Breeze, , 10, , Leaves & small things in motion., , 4, , Moderate, , 15, , Raises dust & loose paper & small branches moved., , 5, , Fresh Breeze, , 21, , Wavelets in water., , 6, , Strong Breeze, , 28, , Large branches in motion., , 7, , Moderate Gale, , 35, , Whole tree in motion., , 8, , Fresh Gale, , 42, , Breaks twigs of trees, , 9., , Strong Gale, , 50, , Slight structural damage, , 10, , Whole Gale, , 59, , Tree uprooted; great damage, , 11., , Storm, , 69, , Widespread damage, , 12, , Hurricane, , > 75, , Most destructive., , CH, IA R, S, O, N, AC I, C, AD L, E, EM, Y, , Beaufort, , Points to remember, , 1. “Eye” is the central low pressure core of, tropical cyclone., , 2. In the tropical cyclone the pattern of isobar, is “circular”., , 3. Willie-Willie is a type of tropical cyclone, of Australia., 4. Chinook is also known as “Snow-Eater”., 5. “Squall” is a very short lived fast wind., 6. Frozen raindrops are called “Sleet”., , 7. “Stevenson Screen” is a Meteorological, shelter., , 8. Weather cock is used to ascertaining “wind, direction”., 9. The condensation at dew point below 0°C, produces frost., , 10. The scattering of light by dust particles is, known as “Tundal effect”., , 11. Cirrostratus is a type of cloud around, which a halo is created., ,


, , [57], , Chronicle IAS Academy

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CHRONICLE, , CLIMA, TIC, CLIMATIC, CLASSIFICA, TION, CLASSIFICATION, , IAS ACADEMY, , A CIVIL SERVICES CHRONICLE INITIATIVE, , Annual range of temperature is greater in, the interior than along the coast., , CH, IA R, S, O, N, AC I, C, AD L, E, EM, Y, , Climate can be classified on the basis of, temperature, precipitation, evaporation and, their seasonal characteristics. The classification, scheme of W. Koppen is the most popular system, and universally accepted. A classification of the, world climatic types is given ahead:, , 1. Tropical Rain Forest/Equatorial Forest Type, Extent: 5°N to 5°S; Amazon Basin, Zaire, Basin, Malaysia, Indonesia., Average daily temperature:, throughout the year, , 25°C, , Annual range of temperature: Less than, 5°C, , Daily range of temperature: Less than, 10°c, due to high % of cloudiness., , Rainfall: Convectional, throughout the, year. No dry season., Annual rainfall: 150 to 200 cm., , Characteristics: Hot wet condition, throughout the year favours rich, vegetation., , 2. Tropical Grassland/Savanna Type, , Extent: 5°N to 15°N & 5°S to 15°S; Africa,, East & central S. America, Transitional, zone between Monsoon and desert climates, of Australia., Monthly mean temperature: 32°C in, summer and 20°C in winter., Annual rainfall: 50 to 100 cm., , Characteristics: Distinct dry season in, winter. Rainfall is in summer owing to, convectional ascent of air., They have tropical grassland with, scattered trees., Llanos:, , Colombian Highland., , Campos:, , SE highland of Brazil,, , Granchaco:, , Argentina & Uruguay., , Savanna:, , Australia and Africa., , 3. Tropical Monsoon Type, Extent: South-east and East Asia, N., Australia, India, Myanmar, Thailand and, South China., , [58], , Annual rainfall may exceed 150 cm. along, the coast, Characteristics: Strongly developed dry, season and the rainfall of the driest mouth, is less than 6 cm. Great contrast in, temperature between summer and winter., , 4. Tropical Deserts, , Extent: Western margin of the continent;, N. America- Colorado Desert, Mexican, Desert; Africa - Sahara & Kalahari Desert;, S.W.- Asia - Arabian, Iranian & Thar, Deserts; S. America- Atacama Desert;, Australia- Great Australian Desert., Mean monthly temperature is 36°C in, summer and 15°C in winter., Diurnal range of temperature is very high., Annual rainfall: It is a region of, descending air so precipitation is scanty. It, remains very hot during the day (45°C) and, quite cool at night (15°C). Annual rainfall, is less than 20 cm., , 5. Mid-Latitude/Temperate Deserts, , Extent: Tibet, Mongolia, Gobi, Patagonia,, Parts of Soviet, Central CIS., Average annual temperature: above 18°C, Rainfall: scanty., , Charactereristic: Winter is colder because, of its interior location. Some are intermountain deserts., , 6. Tropical Dry-hot Steppe, , Extent: N.Australia, Arabia, Rajasthan,, Deccan Plateau, S.African Plateau, North, Argentina., Annual rainfall: 30 cm, maximum in, summer., Charactereristic:Climate is semi-arid, characterized by grasslands., , 7. Mid-Latitude Dry-cold Steppe, Extent: Ukraine W. Siberia, Western U.S.A, Annual rainfall: less than 30 cm, maximum, in summer., , Chronicle IAS Academy

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Charactereristic:It has semi-arid climate, with grasslands., , 11. Snowy Forest Climate with moist Winter/, Taiga, , 8. Mild Humid Climate with no Dry Season/, West European Type, , Extent: beyond 60° N in Europe, Asia and, N. America., , Extent: South of 45°S, Western margin, between 45°N and 60°N; N.W.-Europe, including British Isles, west coast of, Canada, S.Chile, Southern New Zealand,, Tasmania., , Annual rainfall: 30 to 40 cm; both in, winter and summer; No dry season., , Rainfall of driest month: more than 3 cm., , Winter are long and severe, coldest month, temperature below-3°C. Have coniferous, forest vegetation., , CH, IA R, S, O, N, AC I, C, AD L, E, EM, Y, , Characteristics: Summers are short and, warm, warmest month temperature is 10°C, to 15°C., , Monthly mean temperature: 5°C in winter, and 15°C in summer., , Annual range of temperature: 10°C., Winters are milder than the similar latitude, in the eastern margin of the continent., Annual rainfall: 75 to 100 cm. No dry, Season as the westerly winds blow from, the ocean throughout the year. Rainfall is, mostly of cyclonic origin., , 12. Snowy Forest climate with Dry Winter/, Manchurian Type, Extent: Eastern Siberia, Northern China,, Part of Japan, Korea, N.E. -USA, ECanada,, , Temperature range is 20°C in summer and, 5°C in winter, , 9. Mild-Humid Climate with a Dry Winter/, China Type, , Annual rainfall: 50 cm. to 75 cm. Summer, is the season of rainfall, winter is dry., , Extent: Along the eastern margin of the, continent in sub-tropical belt; 25°-35° in, both the hemispheres; Central China, S.E.USA, South Bengal; Eastern Argentina,, S.E.-Africa, S.E.-Australia, S-Brazil, S-Japan., , Vegetation consists of mixed forest of, deciduous and coniferous trees., , Annual rainfall: 100 cm, maximum in, summer. Warmest summer month has ten, times more rainfall than the driest winter, month. Winter is a dry season as in winter,, cold winds blow from the interior landmass., These areas are exposed to tropical cyclones., , 10. Mid-Humid Climate with Dry Summer/, Mediterranean Type, , Extent: 30° to 45° L on western side of the, continent in both hemispheres; Around the, Mediterranean sea, in S. Europe, N. Africa,, California coast, Central Chile, Cape of, Good Hope, S.E. -Australia, , Extent: Arctic Ocean coast, Iceland,, Greenland, , Mean temperature of the warmest month:, 0°C to 10°C, Vegetation: Mosses, Lichens., , Annual range of temperature: 40°C to, 50°C, Annual rainfall: 20-25 cm., , Characteristics: Summer is short, ground, may be snow free. During long winter soil, moisture freezes and snow covers the land, totally., 14. Perpetual Forest Climate/Ice-cap Type, , Rainfall of driest month of summer: less, than 3 cm. Winter is the wettest month;, 70% rainfall in the 6 winter months., , Extent: Antarctica, Greenland., , Monthly mean temperature: 20°C in, summer and 10°C in winter., , Winter- continuous night and summercontinuous days, , Annual rainfall: 40 to 90 cm only in winter, (Cyclonic rainfall)., , Off shore trade winds blow in summer;, they are dry and give no rainfall., , Local winds like Sirocco, Mistral, Boro are, prevalent., , [59], , 13. Tundra Climate, , Temperature is always, throughout the year., , below, , 0°C,, , 15. High Mountain Type, , Extent: On high mountain slope of both, hemispheres. Himalayas and Andes have, vertical zonation of climate from tropical, to ice-cap type. Windward slope receives, heavy rainfall while the leeward sides are, dry. In the N-Hemisphere southern slopes, are warmer., , Chronicle IAS Academy

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CHRONICLE, , HYDROSPHERE, , IAS ACADEMY, , A CIVIL SERVICES CHRONICLE INITIATIVE, , CH, IA R, S, O, N, AC I, C, AD L, E, EM, Y, , All the water of the earth including the oceans,, lakes, rivers, ice sheets and the water in the, atmosphere is called hydrosphere and it covers, about 71% of the earth's surface. The ocean, predominates over land areas in the S-Hemisphere, far more than that in the N-Hemisphere., , Ocean, , Area in, sq. km, , Pacific, , 1, 66,240,000, , 46.0, , 86,560,000, , 23.9, , 430,000, , 3.7, , Atlantic, Indian, , Percentage, of sea area, , Major Oceans, , The Pacific Ocean: It is the largest and deepest, ocean covering one third of the globe. Its average, depth is 4200 m. The deepest parts are the, Philippine Trench about 10,380 m. and the Marina, Trench about 10,800 m. The Pacific -Ocean has a, string of volcanoes along the coastal margins of, the conti-nents known as 'The Ring of Fire'., The Atlantic Ocean: Though the Atlantic is, smaller than the Pacific, its total coastline is more, than that of the Pacific and the Indian Ocean, combined. There is a long submarine ridge running north to south in the middle of Atlantic. It, is the greatest mountain chain in the world, (16,000 km long). It is known as the Dolphin, Ridge in the North Atlantic and the Challenger, Ridge in the South Atlantic. There are also continental islands such as the British Isles, Newfoundland, the West Indies etc. The Atlantic is, the greatest commercial highway of the world., , Indian Ocean: It is small in size but has an, average depth of 4,000 m. The two great bays, on either side of the peninsula of India, namely, the Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea belong to, the India Ocean. The Indian Ocean is dotted with, thousands of small islands some of which are of, coral formation, e.g. the Maldives and, Lakshadweep islands, while other like the, Mauritius and the Reunions are volcanic. Sri, Lanka and Malagasy are continental islands., , Arctic Ocean: It is found around the North, Pole. It covers only one thirtieth of the sea area., It is almost completely covered with ice to a, depth of about 3 m., Antarctic Ocean: The remaining area of the, sea is included in the Antarctic Ocean surrounding the Antarctic Continent., , [60], , Profile of Ocean Floor, , The ocean basins are in many ways similar, to the land surface. There are submarine ridges,, plateau, canyons, plains and trenches. The great, variety of relief is largely due to the interaction, of tectonic, volcanic, erosional and depositional, processes. In general the ocean floor can be, divided into four major divisions - the, continental shelf, the continental slope, the, continental rise and the Abyssal Plain., Continental Shelf: It is the land portion,, submerged under sea water and is a transitional, zone between the land and the actual sea bottom., 1. The isobath of 100 fathoms (around 200m), demarcates the continental shelf., 2. The average width is about 70 km. and the, mean slope is less than 1°., 3. About 7.5 percent of the total ocean area is, covered by it., 4. It is almost absent in the eastern Pacific, ocean, especially in South America., 5. At the eastern coast of USA it is about 120, km wide and also very wide on the eastern, coast of India., 6. Individually it covers about 13.3% part of, Atlantic Ocean, 5.7% of Pacific Ocean and, 4.2% of Indian Ocean., 7. It is the area of terrigenous deposits i.e., sediments are derived from land., 8. They provide the richest fishing ground in, the world., , Chronicle IAS Academy

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9. About 20% of world petroleum and natural, gas are found here., Continental Slope: It lies at the edge of the, continental shelf, generally up to the depth of, 2000 fathoms (3660 m) from the mean sea level., , CH, IA R, S, O, N, AC I, C, AD L, E, EM, Y, , 1. It has a steep slope with the angle of slope, varying from 2° to 5°., , 2. It covers about 8.5% of the total oceanic, area and individually about 12.4% of the, Atlantic Ocean, 7.1% of the Pacific Ocean, and 6.5% of the Indian Ocean., , 3. The continental blocks are supposed to end, at the site of continental slope., , 3. All the above features are volcanic in origin,, very common in Pacific Ocean., , 4. The continental slope along the many coasts, of the world is furrowed by deep canyons, like trenches terminating as fan-shaped, deposits at the base., , Submarine Trenches or Deeps: A long, narrow and steep sided depression on the ocean, floor is called trench. These are the deepest part, of the ocean., , Continental Rise: The place where the, continental slopes end, the gentle sloping, continental rise begins. The average slope is, between 0.5° and 1° & its general relief is low. With, increasing depth the Continental Rise becomes, virtually flat and it merges with abyssal plain., , 1. They lie along the fringes of the deep sea, plains and usually run parallel to the, bordering fold mountains or the island, claims., , Abyssal/Deep Sea Plains: Beyond, Continental Rise, it is found at the depth of 3000, to 6000 m. They cover about 40% of the total, ocean floor and generally are bounded by hills, (ridges) on the seaward side. They are almost, flat with a gradient less than 1:100. The irregular, topography of the abyssal plain are buried, forming relatively flat areas due to large supply, of sediments., Submarine Ridges: These are the mountain, ranges on the ocean floor and some of them are, the largest mountain system on the earth., 1. A large number of submarine ridges are, placed centrally in the oceans., 2. At some places their summits may rise, above the sea level forming islands., , Abyssal Hills: A deep sea floor also, contains numerous isolated abyssal hills, seamounts and guyots., 1. A submarine mountain peak rising more, than 1000 m above ocean floor are known, as "seamount"., 2. Flat topped seamounts are known as, "Guyots"., , [61], , 2. They are believed to have resulted from, faulting or down folds of the earth crust, and so tectonic in origin., , 3. They are most common in the Pacific Ocean, like "Mariana Trench" off the Guam Island, Chain which is deepest (11 km) in the, world., , Submarine Canyons: These are the deep, gorges on the ocean floor and are restricted to, the continental shelves, slopes and rises., , 1. Some canyons begin at the edge of the, continental shelf and extend down the, continental slope. For example "Oceanographer Canyon" near New, England., 2. Some canyons have dendritic appearance, like off the east coast of Southern California., 3. Some begins at the river mouth and extends, over the continental shelf as "Zaire",, "Mississippi" and "Indus" canyons., , Bank, Shoal & Reef: Banks are almost flat, topped elevation located in the continental, margin. Shoals are detached elevation with, shallow depth. Reefs are the mound or rocky, elevation like ridges made of organic deposit., , Chronicle IAS Academy

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1. The depth of water is relatively small in, banks but adequate for navigation., 2. These are sites of rich fishing e.g. "Dogger, Bank" (North Sea), "Grand Bank" (off, Newfoundland)., , ARCTIC OCEAN, Ridges and Basins: Faeroe-Iceland Rise, East, Jan Mayen Ridge, Spitsbergen Ridge, Greenland, Basin, Norwegian Basin, N-Polar Basin, , CH, IA R, S, O, N, AC I, C, AD L, E, EM, Y, , 3. Shoals are dangerous for navigation as they, are only 18-20 m below the sea level., , Trenches: Sunda Trench, Valdivia Deep, Jeffrey deep, , 4. 'Great Barrier Reef' (off Queens land,, Australia) is the largest reef in the world., , ATLANTIC OCEAN, , Ridges: Rio Grande Ridge, Wyville-Thompson Ridge, Newfoundland Ridge, Walvis, Ridge, Telegraphic Plateau, Sierra Leone Ridge,, Raykjanes Ridge, Cape Swell, Dolphin Rise,, Challenger Rise., Basins: Labrador Basin, Iberian Basin, CapeVerde Basin, Guinea Basin, Sierra Leone Basin,, Cape Basin, Argentina Basin, Agulhas Basin, Deeps & trenches: Moseley Deep, Buchanan, Deep, Valdivia Deep, Romanche Deep, PuertoRico Deep, Nares Deep, PACIFIC OCEAN, , Ridges: Albatross Plateau, Cocos Ridge, SanFelix-Juan Ridge, Hawaiian Swell, Marcus, Necker Rise, Chatham Rise, Lord Howe Rise,, Norfolk Ridge, S. Tasmania Ridge, , Basins: Aleutian Basin, E&W Caroline Basin, Fiji, Basin, E. Australian Basin, Jeffrey's Basin, S W, Pacific Basin, SE Pacific Basin, Pacific Atlantic, Basin., Trenches: Aleutian Trench, Kuril Trench, Philippine Trench, Cape-Johnson Deep, Nero Deep,, Mariana Trench, Tonga-Kermadec Trench,, Aldrich Deep, Brook Deep, Planet Deep, INDIAN OCEAN, , Ridges: Socotra-Chagos Ridge, St. Paul Ridge,, Seychelles Ridge, Crozet Ridge, Crozet Ridge,, Kerguelen Ridge, Laccadives-Chagos Ridge,, Chagos St. Paul Ridge, Kergel-Gausberg Ridge,, Andaman Rise., , Basins: Somali Basin, Oman Basin, Natal Basin, Mauritius Basin, Agulhas Basin, Andaman, Basin, Cocos-Kelling Basin, E. Indian-Antarctic Basin, , [62], , Temperature, , Horizontal Distribution of Temperature: The, mean annual temperature of the surface water of, the oceans is 25°C varying from - 5°C to over 33°C., 1. The temperature decreases as we move, away from the equator. The average, temperature of ocean water is 26°C at the, equator, 23°C at latitude 20°., 2. The coldest month in the ocean is February, and the warmest month is August in the, Northern Hemisphere and reverse in the, Southern Hemisphere., 3. The highest temperature of ocean water is, found in enclosed or partially enclosed seas, in the equatorial areas e.g. a temperature, of 38°C has been recorded in Red Sea, though the average temperature in summer, is only 29°C., 4. The temperature of the warm current is, higher than the surrounding areas. Thus, Gulf Stream does not allow the Norwegian, coast to freeze even in winter., 5. The prevailing winds deflect the warm and, cold currents and cause change in, temperature of the ocean water. So, in the, tropical zone the western section of the, oceans are warmer than the eastern section, owing to the influence of trade winds. In, the Temperate zone the westerlies makes, the eastern section warmer than the, western section., 6. The temperature decreases as we move, away from equator., , Vertical distribution of temperature:, Though the sea temperature decreases with increasing depth, the rate of decrease is not uniform. The change in sea temperature below 200, m is negligible., , Chronicle IAS Academy

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Horizontal Distribution of Salinity, , Salinity, , I. Latitudinal Distribution: It decreases, from Equator towards the Poles. The average, salinity of N-Hemisphere is 34‰while for SHemisphere it is 35‰. In general there is low, salinity in equatorial zone, high in tropical, belt, low in temperate zone and minimum in, sub-polar zone., , CH, IA R, S, O, N, AC I, C, AD L, E, EM, Y, , The salinity of the Ocean means the, degree of saltiness of the oceans. The average, salinity of the oceans is 35.3% i.e. about 35, parts of salt in 1,000 parts of water. In the, Baltic Sea, where there is much dilution by, fresh water and melting ice, the salinity is, much lower only about 4%. Very high salinity, is recorded in inland seas and lakes. Lake van, in Turkey records the highest salinity of 330%., Red Sea (240%), Dead sea (238%), Great Salt, Lake with (220%) are other areas of high, salinity., The variation of salinity in the various seas, and oceans is affected by:, 1. The rate of evaporation., 2. The amount of fresh water added by, precipitation, streams and icebergs; and, 3. The degree of water mixing by currents., •, , The origin of salinity is attributed to, erosion of earth's crust by dissolving, action of running water which causes, erosion in the oceanic crust and volcanic, ash which contains minerals like, Calcium, Boron, Iodine, etc., , •, , Salinity is excessive in region of high, temperature, strong winds and less rain., For example, it is lower in the equatorial, region due to high relative humidity., , •, , Influx of fresh water by rivers reduces the, salinity and so there is less salinity near, the mouths of rivers like Amazon, Congo,, Niger, Ganga etc., , •, , In spite of high temperature salinity is less, is equatorial region because of his rainfall., Around the Poles there is a belt of low, salinity because of addition of fresh water, in the form of icebergs and excessive, snow falls., , Salt, NaCl, , Oceanic Salt Ratio, Name, Percentage, Sodium Chloride, 77.8, , MgCl2, , Magnesium Chloride, , 10.9, , MgSO4, , Magnesium Sulphate, , 4.7, , CaSO4, , Calcium Sulphate, , 3.6, , K2SO4, , Potassium Sulphate, , 2.5, , CaCO3, , Calcium Carbonate, , 0.3, , MgBr2, , Magnesium, , 0.2, , [63], , Latitudinal Zones, , Salinity (%), , 10-15 N, , 34.5-35, , 15-40 N, , 35-36, , 40-50 N, , 33-34, , 50-70 N, , 30-31, , 10-30 S, , 35-36, , 30-50 S, , 34-35, , 50-70 S, , 33-34, , II. Regional Distribution: The amount of, salinity varies from ocean to ocean, mainly due, to supply of fresh water, rapidity of evaporation, and water mixing tendency. The greatest, proportion of salt is found in two areas which, lie about the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of, Capricorn. From these regions the salinity, decreases both towards equator and the poles., Salinity of the inland seas and lakes is very high, because of the regular supply of salt by the rivers, flowing into them and the evaporation makes, their water continuously more and more saline., Vertical Distribution of Salinity, , 1. Salinity of the ocean decreases or increases, towards the bottom according to the nature, of the water mass., , 2. In high latitude salinity increases with, depth due to dense water found at the, bottom. In the middle latitude salinity, increases with the depth upto 200 fathoms, and then it starts decreasing., 3. At equator surface salinity is low but just, below it greater salinity is found which again, decreases at the bottom due to presence of, cold water mass., , Ocean Deposits, The unconsolidated sediments derived, , Chronicle IAS Academy

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from various sources, deposited at the sea, floors are called ocean deposits. The ocean, deposits are classified on the basis of their, location as terrigenous and pelagic deposits., , Important Gulfs and Seas, , Part of the Ocean, , 1. South China Sea, , Pacific Ocean, , 2. Caribbean Sea, , Atlantic Ocean, , CH, IA R, S, O, N, AC I, C, AD L, E, EM, Y, , Terrigenous Deposits: These are deposits, of the continental shelf and slope. They consist, of material derived from wear and tear of land,, the remains of animals and plants that live on, the bed of the sea and volcanic material. On, the basis of size of rock fragments, the, sediments are classified into gravel, sand and, mud. Mud is further classified as red, blue or, green mud on the basis of their colour., Volcanic deposits consist of sub-aerial and sub, marine volcanic deposits. The organic deposits, consist of shells and skeletons of animals living, in the continental shelf., , Other Islands: Tasmania, Terra del Fuego,, Southampton., , Pelagic Deposits: These deposits are, found in deep sea plains. They cover 75 per, cent of the ocean area. The organic deposits, consist of liquid mud known as 'ooze' which, contain shells of various organisms. They are, subdivided into Calcareous ooze and Siliceous, ooze. The former contains Pteropod and, Globigerina ooze. The latter consists of, Radiolarian and Diatom ooze. The inorganic, deposits contain Red Clay, which is formed, from the decomposition of volcanic material, which is carried out to sea and occupies the, maximum space of the ocean floor., , World Islands, , Atlantic Ocean Islands: Greenland, Baffin,, Ireland, Great Britain, Iceland, Hispaniola, Pico, Island of Azores, Cuba, Cape Verde Island, Perks, Projected Island, Bermuda Island, Ascension, Island, St. Helena Island, Gough Volcanic Island,, Newfoundland, West Indies., Indian Ocean Islands: Andaman &, Nicobar, Madagascar, Zanzibar (all are the detached part of continental block), Lakshadweep, & Maldives (coral islands), Mauritius & Reunion, Island (Volcanic), Sumatra, Java, Sri Lanka,, Pacific Ocean Islands: New Guinea,, Borneo, Honshu, Hokkaido, Honshu, Shikoku,, Celebes, South Island and North Island (New, Zealand), Luzon, Mindanao, Sakhalin,, , Atlantic Ocean Islands: Ellesmere, Victoria,, Banks, Devon, Melville, Axel Heiberg,, , [64], , 3. Mediterranean Sea, , Atlantic Ocean, , 4. Bering Sea, , Pacific Ocean, , 5. Gulf of Mexico, , Atlantic Ocean, , 6. Sea of Okhotsk, , Pacific Ocean, , 7. East China Sea, , Pacific Ocean, , 8. Hudson Bay, , Atlantic Ocean, , 9. Sea of Japan, , Pacific Ocean, , 10. Andaman Sea, , Indian Ocean, , 11. North Sea, , Atlantic Ocean, , 12. Black Sea, , Atlantic Ocean, , 13. Red Sea, , Indian Ocean, , 14. Baltic Sea, , Atlantic Ocean, , 15. Persian Gulf, , Indian Ocean, , 16. Gulf of St. Lawrence, , Atlantic Ocean, , 17. Gulf of California, , Pacific Ocean, , 18. Irish Sea, , Atlantic Ocean, , 19. English Channel, , Atlantic Ocean, , 20. Bass Strait, , Pacific Ocean, , 21. Arabian Sea, , Indian Ocean, , 22. Bay of Bengal, , Indian Ocean, , Coral reefs & Atolls, , Corals are a kind of calcareous rock chiefly, made of the skeletons of minute sea organisms, called 'polyps'. Coral reefs and atolls are formed, due to accumulation and compaction of, skeletons of these lime secreting organisms., Conditions for Growth of Coral Reefs, , 1. The coral and the associated organisms and, algae which are the most common reef, builders are con-fined to the tropical belt., The water temperature must not fall below, 20°C and not exceed 35°C; the most, favourable is 23°C to 25°C., , Chronicle IAS Academy

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2. Corals can live only in saline water, and, for their proper growth the average salinity, should be between 27 to 40%., , Geographical Distribution of Coral Reefs, 1. Coral reefs are limited to the tropical seas, and are found almost entirely between, latitudes 30°N and 25°S., 2. Rich growth of reefs is found off the eastern, coasts of North America and Australia., , CH, IA R, S, O, N, AC I, C, AD L, E, EM, Y, , 3. For growth of coral the depth of the water, should not exceed 200m. Most vigorous, growth is confined to shallow water less, than 50 m. deep., , in Maldives, Funafoothis Atoll of Ellice., , 4. Corals also require sediment-free, clean, water which is disturbed by ocean waves, and currents is beneficial for the corals., 5. In the open seas it is necessary to have, platforms which may act as foundations, for the corals. These platforms should not, be deeper than 90 m., , 3. On coasts where the rivers bring large, quantities of sediments from the land, corals, are not found e.g. coasts of South America., 4. The coral reefs are most common in the, Pacific and the Indian Ocean, due to their, shallow, warm and clean water., , The coral reefs are classified on the basis of, nature, shape and mode of occurrence into (i), Fringing reef (ii) Barrier reef (iii) Atoll., , 5. The most important area of coral reef, growth lies in the seas off the east coast of, Australia and in the Philippines., , Fringing Reef: Coral reefs that develop, along the continental margins or along the, islands are called fringing reefs. The seaward, slope is steep and vertical while the landward, slope is gentle. Such reefs are found near, Rameshwaram in the Gulf of Mannar., Occasionally the fringing reef is separated from, the shore by shallow lagoon known as "Boat, Channel" as found in Madagascar and Red Sea., Example of fringing reefs: South Florida reef,, Mehetia Island, Sakau Island in New Hebrides., , 6. Only a few coral reefs lie outside the IndoPacific tropical area, those of Gulf of Mexico, and the Caribbean Sea have some reefs., , Barrier Reef: They are the largest, most, extensive, highest and widest reefs of all types, of coral reefs. They are formed off the coastal, platforms and parallel to them. There is an, extensive but shallow lagoon between the coastal, land and the barrier reef. Generally barrier reefs, encircle islands in an irregular and broken ring., The Great Barrier Reef of Australia is the largest, barrier reef in the world., , Atoll: A ring of narrow growing corals of, horse shoe shape and crowned with palm trees, is called an atoll. It is generally found around an, island or in an elliptical form on a submarine, platform. There is a lagoon in the middle of a, coral ring. They are more common in Pacific, Ocean. The circular ring is broken at few places, to allow the free flow of water. The depth of the, lagoon is only a few metres with sand and, limestone debris at the bottom. Example of Atolls:, Fiji Atoll, Trunt Atoll of W-Carolinas, Suvadivo, , [65], , El Nino and La Nina, , El Nino is a warm sub-surface current in the, Pacific Ocean off the Peruvian coast. El Nino, literally means 'child of the Christ'. It is a, destructive weather system pushed into action, by the warming of the cold ocean current in the, east pacific. El Nino's destructive capacity peaks, by late October or November, when it starts to, cool down and is called La-Nina or literally 'The, girl'. El Nino affects the monsoon in India. An El, Nino circulation in the winter suggests a strong, walker circulation in the following summer and, consequently a weak monsoon. However, scientists are still skeptical about its relation with, monsoon. Recently its link with the fire in, Indonesia has been subjected to much debate., , Ocean currents, , The regular movements of water from one, part of the ocean to another are called "Ocean, Currents". They are mainly caused by the, difference in density of sea water due to, variations in temperature and salinity. The, prevailing winds push them onwards. The, position of the land masses and the shape and, depth of the ocean basins also have some, , Chronicle IAS Academy

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influence. Main causes of ocean currents include, - winds, differences in density owing to, variations in temperature and salinity. Ocean, currents may be cold or warm., A. Atlantic Ocean Current, , continuation of South Equatorial Current., 9. Falkland Cold Current: Similar to Labrador, cold current, this cold water of Antarctica, moves on along the Argentina coast. It, brings icebergs with it., 10. South Atlantic Drift: It is the continuation, of easterly deflected Brazilian current, which moves earthward between 45°S to, 60°S under the influence of strong, westerlies. A branch of it is diverted along, the west coast of Africa and moves north, as "Benguela Current.", , 2. South Equatorial Current: Flows south of, the equator between 0° and 12° latitude in, between the coast of Africa and S., America. This warm current is virtually the, continuation of cold Benguela current., , 11. Benguela Current: This cold current flows, northward along the west-African coast. If, finally joins South Equatorial current., , CH, IA R, S, O, N, AC I, C, AD L, E, EM, Y, , 1. North Equatorial Current: Attributed to, NE-Trade winds, it starts from west coast, of Africa where upwelling of cold water, takes place and moves westward between, 5° and 20° N as warm current. A branch, of it is diverted into Caribbean Sea as, "Antilles Current.", , 3. Equatorial Counter Current: This warm, current flows between the two strong, equatorial currents and moves towards the, opposition direction in the east. In the eastern, part it is known as "Guinea Current.", 4. Florida Warm Current: It flows from the, strait of Florida to Cape Hatteras which is, a continuation of North Equatorial current, in the Gulf of Mexico., , 5. Gulf Stream: The warm water of Antilles, and Florida current after joining together, flows as Gulf Stream, off the Cape Hatteras., After it, it is deflected eastward under the, combined influence of westerlies and the, rotation of the earth., , 6. North Atlantic Drift: East of Grand Bank,, the Gulf Stream flows as slow moving North, Atlantic Drift. It is further divided into two, parts - the northern branch flows in the, Norwegian Sea and the southern branch, flows south of Ireland as "Irminger Current";, another branch flows along the coast of, France and Spain as "Canary Current"., 7. Labrador Cold Current: It flows from Arctic, Ocean and move southward along the coast, of Canada and meets the warm Gulf Stream, producing famous fog ground along the, Newfoundland as the great fishing ground., , 8. Brazilian Warm Current: It flows along, the S. American coast as the southward, , [66], , B. Indian Ocean Currents:, , Being blocked in the north by the continental, mass the Indian Ocean represents only the, southern part of the ocean. The northern part, develops a reversal system of currents as per the, seasonal rhythm of Monsoon. In summer the, North Equatorial current is replaced by SWMonsoon current flowing from west to east and, throwing branches into the Bay of Bengal and, the Arabian Sea. On the northern coast of Africa, along Somaliland the upwelling takes place and, a cold current develops, known as "Somali, Current". South Equatorial current flows north, of 20ºS between Australia and Africa. After, striking the landmass of Africa it splits into many, branches; the major one turning southward to, form the "Agulhas Current"., Mozambique Current: A branch of South, Equatorial Current at 65°E is bifurcated towards, the north of Malagassy Republic and flows, through the Mozambique Channel known as, Mozambique current., West Wind Drift: Under the stress of westerly, wind the cold water at 40°S moving in the easterly, direction is known as West Wind Drift. One, Branch of it flows northward along Australia, which forms West Australian Cold Current., West Australian Cold Current: Flowing on, the west coast of Australia, its gains its water, from west wind drift., C., , Pacific Ocean Currents:, The Ocean Currents in the Pacific Ocean, , Chronicle IAS Academy

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have a pattern similar to that in the Atlantic, Ocean. Due to vast water masses the counter, current has become very stable., , Ebb Tide: The tide between a high tide and, a low tide is known as ebb tide., Spring Tide: When the amplitude difference, of the tide in a day is at maximum, the tide is, called spring tide. It occurs on new moon and, full moon days. High tides are very high and low, tides very low on those days., , CH, IA R, S, O, N, AC I, C, AD L, E, EM, Y, , 1. North Equatorial Current: It flows from, Mexican coast to Philippines between 5N, and 10N latitude. It is a warm well, developed current., , not much, sea water recedes from the shore. Such, waves constitute a low tide., , 2. South Equatorial Current: It is also a warm, current, south of North Equatorial Current., 3. Counter Equatorial Current: This warm, current is very sable in nature., 4. Kuroshio Warm Current : Similar to Gulf, stream of Atlantic Ocean, it flows from, Formosa to Rique, "Tsushima Current" is, its branch which goes to Japan Sea and is, a warm current., , 5. Kurile / Oyashio Cold Current: It flows, southward from the baring strait. Near 50°N, latitude it meets to Kuroshio Current, causing fog., , Neap Tide: When the amplitude of the tide, is minimum. It occurs on the first quarter and last, quarter of the moon. High tides are comparatively, low and low tides comparatively high., Tidal Bores: When a tidal wave meets a, tidal river or estuary, a tidal bore is formed., Where the outgoing river currents are strong and, the tidal river rather shallow and tunnel shaped,, the rapidly rising high water advances up stream, like a high vertical wall, known as tidal bore., •, , Bore occurs at river mouths that face the, direction of tidal surge and where tidal, range is large. Rivers like Amazon,, Hooghly, Colorado, Yangtze are, characterized by tidal bores., , •, , Although tides occur twice a day, their, interval is not exactly 12 hours; actually, it is of 12 hours and 25 minutes. This is, due to the revolution of the moon and, the rotation of the earth., , •, , Generally tides occur twice a day. But, Southampton, along the southern coast of, England experiences tides four times a day, because the tidal water comes through the, English Channel and through the North, Sea at different intervals., , •, , Tides in the area of the sea, known as, "Gulf Tides" also causes the horizontal, movement of water of the sea known as, "Tidal Current"., , •, , Monthly tides occur due to revolution of, moon and its position at perigee and, apogee., , High Tide: When the intensity of the wave, is great, the waves are of considerable amplitude, and so the sea water comes over the coast to some, extent. Such waves constitute a high tide., , •, , Equinoctial Spring tides recur at an, interval of 6 months, due to revolution, of the earth around the sun and sun's, varying declination., , Low Tide: When the height of the wave is, , •, , Yearly tides recur due to revolution of the, , 6. Californian Cold Current: Similar to, Canaries current it flows along the west, coast of N. America., 7., , Peru / Humboldt Cold Current: It flows, along the Peru coast., , 8. East Australian Current: It is a warm, current along the east Australian coast., , 9. West Wind Drift: This cold current flows, from west to east direction between 40°S and, 50°S. It is also called as "Roaring Forties"., , Tides, , The alternative rise and fall of the level of, the Sea, approximately twice a day, caused by, the gravitational pull of the moon and the Sun, is called tide. The gravitational attraction of the, moon is twice as powerful as that of the Sun., The moon despite being much smaller in size than, the Sun is relatively very close to the earth and, is thus able to attract more than the Sun., , [67], , Chronicle IAS Academy

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earth and its position at perihelion and, aphelion., , 9. The region with maximum tidal power, potential in India is "Gulf of Cambay"., 10. Dogger Bank is in North Sea., , 1. Tides make some of the rivers navigable for, ocean going vessels e.g., Kolkata, London etc., , 11. The tidal theory of Jeans and Jeffery, explains the formation of Earth., , 2. Tides clear the sediments brought by rivers, and thus retard the process of delta, formation., , 12. Oceanic ridge are found along the diverging, boundary., , CH, IA R, S, O, N, AC I, C, AD L, E, EM, Y, , Importance of tides, , 3. Tides are agents of distribution; biologically, they distribute and redistribute the, plankton and nektons along with coastal, water which helps in fishing industries., , 13. The tidal producing forces of Sun and Moon, are in the ratio of 4:9., 14. The tract of land between two adjacent, rivers is called "interfluve"., , 4. The tidal force may be used as the source of, electricity e.g. In France, Japan, India etc., , 15. The tidal mouth of a river where saltwater, meets freshwater is called "Estuary"., , Points to remember, , 16. End of the continental block is marked by, the seaward limits of continental slope., , 1. Waves caused by earthquakes are known, as "tsunamis.", 2. "Cirrus" and "small cumulus" type of cloud, are associated with fair weather., , 3. A rock layer through which groundwater, moves freely is "aquifer"., 4. Lake Knebel in Iceland is a "crater lake"., , 5. Drizzle is produced generally by "stratus", or "Strato Cumulus"., , 17. Maximum thickness of sediments is found, over "continental Slope"., 18. Region of maximum salinity over the Indian, coast is the "Gulf of Kutch"., 19. Spring Tides occur when Sun and Moon, are either in conjunction or opposition., 20. The unit of measurement of flow of a fluid, is "Cusec"., , 6. Sargasso Sea is in "Atlantic" Ocean., , 21. The busiest ocean route in the world is, "North-Atlantic route"., , 7. Country having largest deposits of organic, phosphates is "Peru"., , 22. OTEC has the maximum power generation, potential in India., , 8. Hammerfest, the northernmost ice free port,, is in "Norway"., , 23. The average one kg of sea water contains, 345 gram of salts., ,


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CHRONICLE, , SOIL, , IAS ACADEMY, , A CIVIL SERVICES CHRONICLE INITIATIVE, , Soil textures:, , CH, IA R, S, O, N, AC I, C, AD L, E, EM, Y, , Soil may be defined as a thin layer of earth's, crust which serves as a natural medium for, growth of plants. It is the unconsolidated, mineral matter that has been subjected to, and, influenced by, genetic and environmental, factors-- parent material, climate, organisms and, topography all acting over a period of time. Soil, differs from the parent material in the, morphological, physical, chemical and biological, properties. Also, soils differ among themselves, in some or all the properties, depending on the, differences in the genetic and environmental, factors. Thus some soils are red, some are black;, some are deep and some are shallow; some are, coarse textured and some are fine-textured. They, serve as a reservoir of nutrients and water, for crops, provide mechanical anchorage and, favourable tilth. The components of soil are, mineral matter, organic matter, water and air,, the proportions of which vary and which, together form a system for plant growth; hence, the need to study the soils in perspective., , Soils are derived from consolidated parent, rocks by the process of weathering followed by, pedogenesis. Weathering refers to the physical, and chemical disintegration and decomposition, of rocks which are not under equilibrium under, temperature, pressure and moisture conditions, on the earth's surface. In the beginning, weathering precedes soil formation, more, so in hard rocks. In other words, weathering, creates the parent material over which soil formation takes place. Later, weathering, soil formation and development proceed simultaneously. The product of weathering is called regolith (small particle of rock). Under the influence of pedogenic processes, it finally develops, into mature soil., Factors affecting soil formation other than, the regolith are:, , [69], , 1. Climate, , 2. Vegetation, , 3. Relief,, , 4. Parental materials, , 5. Living organism, , 6. Time, , Soils Types, , Sand, , Clay, , Silt, , Sandy Loam, , 65%, , 15%, , 20%, , Clay Loam, , 33%, , 33.5%, , 33.5%, , Loam, , 40%, , 18%, , 42%, , Silty Clay, , 10%, , 45%, , 45%, , Silt Loam, , 17%, , 13%, , 70%, , Water retention of different soil types:, , Pure sand holds least water while pure clay, holds the most. Loam holds the intermediate, amount. Sand transmits the water downward, most rapidly and the clay most slowly. Sand, reaches its full capacity very rapidly and added, water is wasted. Clay-rich loam takes up water, very slowly and if irrigation is too rapid, water, will be lost by surface runoff. Sandy soil requires, more frequent watering than clay-rich soil. The, intermediate loam texture is generally best as, agricultural soil because it drains well and also, has favourable water-retention properties., , Soil Profile, , It is a vertical section of soil through all its, horizons and extends upto the parent materials., A study of soil profile is important both from the, standpoint of soil formation and development, (pedology) and crop husbandry (edaphology). In, deep soils the soil profile may be studied upto one, metre and a quarter and in others upto the parent, material. The layers (horizons) in the soil profile, which vary in thickness may be distinguished, from the morphological characteristics which, include colour, texture, structure, etc., •, O Horizon, , At the top of the profile is the O horizon., This is primarily composed of organic matter., Fresh litter is found at the surface, while at depth, all signs of vegetation structure have been, destroyed by decomposition. The decomposed, , Chronicle IAS Academy

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This is a zone of illuviation where eluviated, materials from the upper horizons are, accumulated. The accumulation of fine material, leads to the creation of a dense layer in the soil., In some soils the B horizon is enriched with, calcium carbonate in the form of nodules or as a, layer. This occurs when Capillary action brings, cations like calcium and sodium dissolved in soil, water upwards where they precipitate from the, water., , CH, IA R, S, O, N, AC I, C, AD L, E, EM, Y, , organic matter or humus enriches the soil with, , Eluviation is significant in humid climates, where ample precipitation exists and a surplus, in the water balance occurs. Illuvial layers are, found low in the soil profile. Illuvial zones are, found closer to the surface in semiarid and arid, climates where precipitation is scarce., •, , nutrients, aids soil structure (acts to bind, particles), and enhances soil moisture retention., •, , A Horizon (The Top Soil), , Beneath the O horizon is the A horizon. The, A horizon marks the beginning of the true, mineral soil. In this horizon organic material, mixes with inorganic products of weathering., A horizon is typically dark colored due to the, presence organic matter. Eluviation, the removal, of inorganic and organic substances from a, horizon by leaching, occurs in the A horizon., Eluviation is driven by the downward movement, of soil water., •, , E Horizon, , The E horizon generally is a light-colored, horizon with eluviation being the dominant, process. Leaching or the removal of clay, particles, organic matter and/or oxides of iron, and aluminum is active in this horizon. Under, coniferous forests, the E horizon often has a high, concentration of quartz giving the horizon an, ashy-gray appearance., •, , B Horizon (Subsoil), , Beneath the E horizon, lies the B horizon., , C Horizon - Big rocks, , The C horizon represents the soil parent, material, either created in situ or transported, into its present location. Beneath the C horizon, lies Horizon R (Bedrock). The bedrock layer is, present in just about every different type of soil, profile. This layer is made of hard, solid rock,, which is eroded and weathered to produce most, of the soil above it., , Soil Classification, , Soil Orders: Soils can be subdivided into three, orders known as zonal, intrazonal and azonal., (i) Zonal soils: They are formed under the, conditions of good soil drainage through the, prolonged action of climate and vegetation, and are by far the most important and, widespread of the three orders., (ii) Azonal soils: They have no well-defined profile, either because they have had insufficient time, to develop or because they are on slopes too, steep to allow profile development., (iii) Intrazonal soils: They are simply those, formed under condition of very poor, drainage or upon limestone whose, influence is dominant., , Order, , zone, , Groups, , Soils, , Zonal, , Humid, , Podzolized soil, , Podzols., Brown Podzolic, , [70], , Chronicle IAS Academy

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Gray Brown Podzol, Red- Yellow Podzol, A. Reddish- Brown Laterite, B. Black & Dark Gray Tropical., , Soil of Forest-, , A. Chernozem, , CH, IA R, S, O, N, AC I, C, AD L, E, EM, Y, , Latosols, , Grassland transition, , Intra-Zonal Semi- arid,, , Sub-humid, , Arid,, Semi-Arid, , Azonal, , Sub-Humid, , Dark coloured, , A. Prairies Soil (Brunizem Soil)., , soil of semi- arid, , B. Reddish Prairies, , of marshes, swamps,, , B. Meadow Soil (Wiesenboden Soil), , bogs, and flat uplands:, , C. Alpine Meadow., D. Planosols., , Halomorphic Soil of, poorly drained Arid, , A. Saline Soil (Solanchak), B. Alkali Soil (Solonetz), , and coastal regions, Calcimorphic Soils, , A. Rendzina, , Lithosols (Mt. Soils), , A. Alluvial, , Regosols, , B. Sandy (dry), , Major soil groups and their characteristics:, , 1. Podzol: one of the most widespread and most, developed soils. Rich in humus, low in fertility,, deficient in bases like calcium, magnesium,, potassium and phosphorous. Closely, associated with the sub-arctic climate and the, cooler parts of the marine west coast climate., 2. Latosols: characteristics of humid tropics., Chief characteristics include:, (a) Complete chemical and mechanical, decomposition of the parent rock., (b) Silica entirely leached from the soil., (c) Complete lack of humus., , (d) A reddish brown colour given by the, oxides of iron, aluminium and, manganese., , 3. Chernozem soil: zonal soil in a semi-arid, climate. Horizon ‘A’ is rich in humus., Horizon ‘B’ is rich in bases. Generally, acidic. It is found in Ukraine, central USA,, central Africa, South America and, Australia; it is highly productive for small, grain crops like wheat, oat, barley etc., , [71], , 4. Prairies soil: similar to chernozem. But it, lacks the excess calcium carbonate of the, chernozems. Extremely productive. Maize, and wheat are the main crops associated, with it., 5. Chestnut soil: it is the zonal soil of midlatitude grasslands that occurs in drier, region. It has considerably low content of, organic materials. Its parent material is, generally loess. The chestnut soil occurs in, south Ukraine, the great plains of the U.S.A., and South African veldts., 6. Hydrographic soil: it is associated with, marshes, swamps, bogs or poorly drained, flat uplands. They are all intra-zonal soils., "Bog" soils are formed under bog vegetation, in regions of cool continental climate., , 7. Desert soil: It is grey in colour in temperate, region and red in hot deserts of tropic. The, cold desert soil is found in mid-latitude cold, desert region and lack in humus. It has one of, the best cotton producing regions of the world., 8. Tundra soils: It develops in such regions, where summer is short (3 months) and, winter is long (9 months). Plant growth is, , Chronicle IAS Academy

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5. The grey-brown podzolic soil differs from, podzols in that leaching is less intense and, contains more of the important base than, the podzols., 6. The pedogenic regime of “gleization” is, characteristic of poorly drained environments, under a moist and cool cold climate., , CH, IA R, S, O, N, AC I, C, AD L, E, EM, Y, , restricted. Even percolated water is frozen, during the winter. No chemical and, biological action takes place for over nine, months. Wherever frozen ice melts, marshy, soil is developed. Canada and the erstwhile, U.S.S.R. have this type of soil., , Points to remember, , 1. The “soil profile” refers to the arrangement, of the soil into horizons of differing texture,, colour and consistency., 2. “Brunizem” soils are also termed as, “prairie” soil., , 3. “Calcification” is a pedogenic regime of, climate in which evaporation on the, average exceeds precipitation., , 4. The deposition of colloids and bases in the, underlying B horizon is a process known, as “illuviation”., , 7. The dark-coloured soil absorbs more of, sun’s heat than the light coloured one., 8. Most matured soils have a layered, arrangement of strata called “horizon”., 9. “Podzolisation” commonly occurs in a, typical regime of coniferous forest regions., 10. “Leaching” is a process of removal of, minerals in solution from the upper layers, to the lower layers of soils e.g. “Podzol”, type of soils., ,


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CHRONICLE, , NETURAL, VEGETATION, , A CIVIL SERVICES CHRONICLE INITIATIVE, , 4. Area: Caribbean Land, SE-Florida, South, and South-east Asia, Eastern Brazil coast,, Madagascar coast, North-east Australian, coast., , Equatorial Evergreen Forest, , CH, IA R, S, O, N, AC I, C, AD L, E, EM, Y, , •, , IAS ACADEMY, , 1. These forests are located close to the equator- Amazon and Congo basins, Malaysia, Coastal Burma, Cambodia, Vietnam,, Indonesia, New Guinea etc. - where the, rainfall is heavy. Example of trees - Ebony,, Mahogany, Rosewood, Rubber etc., 2. Consists of tall, closely set trees. Their, crown form continuous canopy of foliage., , Tropical Monsoon Forest, 1. They are located in Burma, Thailand,, Cambodia, Laos, North Vietnam, parts, of India, North Australia etc. Species Teak, Rubber, Bamboo, Mango, Sal, Sandalwood, Acacia, Eucalyptus etc., , 3. Trees are smooth-barked and unbranched in the lower two-third part., , 2. More open tree growth than Equatorial, and Tropical Rain Forests., , 4. Leaves are large and evergreen so called, "Broadleaf Evergreen Forest"., , 3. Less competition among trees for light, so greater development of vegetation in, lower layers., , •, , 5. Thick, woody lianas are common with, tendrils or suckers to climb., , 4. Trees trunks are massive with rich and, rough bark., , 6. Epiphytes are numerous and they include fern, orchid, mosses and lichens., , 5. Most of the trees are deciduous, and, sheds their leaves in long dry season., , 7. Trees are not found in a single stand., Thus considerable labour is involved in, economic activities., 8. Due to high temperature there is a rapid, consumption of dead plant matters by, bacterial action which results in the, absence of humus on the soil-surface., , 9. In the absence of cold and dry season, plant growth goes on continuously, throughout the year. Individual species, have their own seasons of leaf-sheding., , •, , Tropical Rain Forest, , 1. Quite similar in structure to the equatorial variety and extends in the tropical, gone of 10° to 25°N along the windward coast of trade winds., , 2. The trade wind littoral climate in which, the tropical rainforest thrives has a short, dry season., 3. Epiphytes are abundant because of continued exposure to humid air., , [73], , 6. Teakwood trees are representative example of monsoon forest., , 7. Clumps of bamboo are the important, part of vegetation., , •, , Temperate Evergreen Forests, , 1. Located chiefly on the eastern sides of, landmasses in warm temperate latitudes, - South China, South Japan, Southeast, Australia, South Brazil etc. Examples of, trees - Evergreen Oak, Magnolia (China, & U.S.A.), Camphor and Bamboo, (China), Eucalyptus (Australia) etc., , 2. Unlike Equatorial and Tropical Rain, forest it has relatively few species of trees., 3. Leaves tend to be smaller and more, leathery; the leaves canopy is also less, dense., , 4. Have a well developed lower stratum of, vegetation. Lianas and epiphytes are, abundant., , Chronicle IAS Academy

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high latitudes and on high mountains., , 5. The annual range of temperature is small, or moderate and rainfall is abundant, and well distributed throughout the year., •, , 2. This is a forest of evergreen, cone-bearing trees., , Mediterranean Forest, , 3. Examples of trees: Spruce, Blue Pine,, Hammock, Larch., , 1. This type occurs on the Western sides of, land masses in the warm temperate latitudes: low lands around the Mediterranean, Sea, South-West Australia, Southwest Africa, Central Chile and Central California., Examples of trees: Evergreen Oak, Olive,, Grape, Eucalyptus, Redwood etc., , CH, IA R, S, O, N, AC I, C, AD L, E, EM, Y, , 4. These conifers are extremely important, for their soft wood required for the paper, match and synthetic fibre industry,, found mainly in Northern Canada and, Northern Eurasia., 5. The trees have straight trunk, conical, shape with short branches and small, needlelike leaves., , 2. Consists of low trees with small, hard, leathery leaves., 3. Today large areas consist of dense scrub,, locally known as "Maquis"., , 6. In N. America, Europe and western Siberia it is known as "Boreal Forest.", , 4. In the Californian coast it is known as, "Chaparral" and in Australia as, "Sclerophyll Forest"., , •, , 7. In Canada it bears the hygrophytic vegetation as forming a bog succession and, leading to large thick peat accumulation, known as "Muskeg"., , Cool Temperate Forest, , 1. Deciduous trees predominant., , •, , 1. Tropical grasslands are located mainly, in the continental regions of tropical, latitudes where rain occurs in the hot, season which lasts for about 5 months., , 2. Regions include - West and Central Europe, Eastern U.S.A., North China,, North Japan New Zealand etc. Examples, of tree - Maple, Birch, Ash, Alm, Oak,, Beech, Chestnut, Walnut etc., , 2. Important regions - north and south of, Zaire Basin, West Africa and east Africa plateau, parts of Brazil, Guiana, Highlands and part of Deccan plateau, in India., , 3. Dominated by tall, broadleaf trees., , 4. Trees provide dense canopy in summer, but shed their leaves completely in the, winter., , 3. These are known by different names in, different regions:, , 5. It is almost entirely limited to the midlatitude landmass of the N-Hemisphere., , 6. This forest represents a response to a, continental climate in which rainfall is, adequate throughout the growth season., 7. Rainfall in greater in summer months, and the soil water demand is high., , •, , Temperate Mixed Forests:, , 1. Between temperate deciduous and temperate coniferous forests., 2. Trees: Aspen, Birch, Alder etc., , •, , Coniferous Forests or Taiga, 1. This type of forest is most extensive in, , [74], , Tropical Grasslands, , •, , Campos, , -, , Brazil, , Llanos, , -, , Guiana Highlands, , Savanna, , -, , Africa and Australia, , Temperate Grasslands, , 1. These grasslands are almost treelessthus contrasting with tropical grasslands., 2. They are best developed in continental, interiors of temperate latitudes., 3. Important temperate grasslands of the, world include:, , Chronicle IAS Academy

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•, , Steppe Prairie PampasVeldtDownsTropical Desert, , 350 latitudes., , Eurasia, North America, Argentina, South Africa, Australia, , 2. Aridity and a great annual temperature, with extremes of winter cold mark the, region., 3. In North America these deserts are, found in basins surrounded by the, Rockies., , CH, IA R, S, O, N, AC I, C, AD L, E, EM, Y, , 1. These are mostly situated between 15º 30º N and S on the western sides of land, masses., , 2. The chief regions are: Sahara (North Africa),, Arabia, parts of Iran, Iraq, Syria, Jordan and, Israel, parts of Pakistan, Central Australia,, Namib Desert (South West Africa), Atacama, (coastal Peru and North Chile)., 3. The most common plants are cacti, thorn, bushes and coarse grasses., , •, , Mid-latitude Deserts, , 1. These are situated in the interior of Asia, and North America between 300 and, , Sn Type of Forests Important Areas, , 4. In South America the Patagonia desert, lying to the east of the Andes is a typical example., , •, , Tundra, , 1. This type of vegetation is chiefly confined to the northern hemisphere, fringing the Arctic “ocean in the continents, of Eurasia, North America and, Greenland Coast., , 2. Important vegetation includes - mosses,, lichens end a few small shrubs., , Main Characteristics, , Important Species, , A, , Evergreen, , 1., , Equatorial Rain, , Amazon basin, Zaire basin., , Broad leaves; evergreen;, , Mahogany, ebony,, , Forests, , Forests are called Selvas in, , growth never stops; Tall trees;, , Rose wood, Iron wood,, , Brazil. Indonesia, Andaman-, , very dense, darkness at the gr-, , Rubber, mangrove, , Nicobar, Borneo, etc., , ound, hard wood. Many kinds, , along the coasts., , of trees in a small piece of land., Economically not developed., , 2., , Mid Latitude, , South China, S.E., USA and, , Evergreen Forests South Brazil. East coast S., Africa & S.E. Australia, , 3., , Hard wood, broad leaves, mixed, , Oak, Eucalyptus, Wattle, , trees, most of forests have been, , have economic value., , cleared for agriculture., , Mediterranean, , Western margins of Continents Moderate rainfall in winter,, , Cork, Oak, Olive,, , Forests, , in the subtropical belt. Areas, , summers are dry. Plants have, , Chestnut and Citrus, , surrounding Mediterranean, , spiny, waxy or small leaves., , fruits., , Sea, Central Chile, California, Thick bark and deep roots can, , 4., , [75], , S.Australia., , withstand long dry summer., , Coniferous, , Continuous belt between, , Growing season limited; Trees, , Pine, Hemlock, Cedar,, , Forests, , 55°-70°N latitudes. Siberia,, , are tall, evergreen and conical, , Fir & Spruce; Wood is, , northern Europe and Canada,, , in shape. Needle shaped leaves. used for making pulp, , high mountains., , Soft wood. Highly exploited., , and paper., , Chronicle IAS Academy

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B., , Deciduous, , 5., , Tropical Decidu- Monsoon regions of Asia, part, , Trees shed their leaves in the, , Teak, Sal, mango,, , ous Forests, , parts of Central America,, , dry season; Less dense; broad, , Sandal wood, bamboo,, , Brazil, Northern Australia., , leaves; economically valuable., , W. Europe, NE China, NE, , Trees shed their leaves in winter. Beach, Elm, Oak,, , Mid latitude, , CH, IA R, S, O, N, AC I, C, AD L, E, EM, Y, , 6., , Deciduous Forests U.S.A., Japan, S. Chile and, , Rapid plant growth in summers. Poplar and Chestnut, , New Zealand.., , C., , Grasslands, , 7., , Tropical, , Either sides of Congo and, , Long and coarse grass, with Savanna or Elephant, , Grasslands, , Amazon valleys., , few small trees. Land of big grass long up to 9, , 8., , games., , feet., , Soft and nutritive grass, , Mid-latitude, , Temperate continental, , Low rainfall in summer helps, , Grasslands, , interior. Steppes (Europe),, , to grow small grass well developed. for animals, very fertile, , Prairies (N. America), Pampas, , Commercial herding is practiced. soil for wheat growing., , (S. America), Veld (S.Africa),, , Famous for wheat (Bread Bask-, , Downs (Australia), , ets of the world)., , Extensive farming., , D. Desert, 9., , Hot Desert, , Sahara, Kalahari, Thar, Arab, West Thorny trees like ‘Babul’, Acacia, Cactus, Acacia, thorny, , Thorny Forests, , Australia, Atacama and Mexico. Date, Palm, Thorny bushes., , 10. Tundra Type, Vegetation, , bushes, thorny grass etc, , North polar areas in Eurasia, , Very long winter with snow clad Patches of mosses,, , and North America, , area, very short summer., , lichens, shrubs., , Order, , Sub-order, , Associated Climate, , Forest Biome, , Equatorial & Tropical Rainforest, , Wet Equatorial, , Monsoon & Trade wind Littoral, , Montane Forest, , Highland Wet Equatorial, , Highland Monsoon & Trade wind belt, , Monsoon Forest, , Wet Dry Tropical, , Dry Tropical, Semi-arid, , Broad leaf Evergreen/ Laurel Forest, , Moist Sub-tropical, , Marine west coast, , Mid-latitude Deciduous Forest, , Marine west coast, , Moist continental, , Needle-leaf Forest, , Marine west coast (N. America), Moist continental (N. America), Boreal Forest, , [76], , Chronicle IAS Academy

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Savanna Biome, , Sclerophyll Forest, , Mediterranean, , Savanna Woodland, , Wet-dry-Tropical, , Thorn tree tall grass – Savanna, , Dry-tropical, semi-arid, Semi desert, Dry-subtropical, Semi-arid Semi-desert, , Prairie (Tall grass), , Moist Sub-tropical, , CH, IA R, S, O, N, AC I, C, AD L, E, EM, Y, , Grassland Biome, , Moist Continental, , Steppe (Short grass), , Dry Mid-latitude, Semi-arid, , Moist Continental, Sub-humid, , Desert Biome, , Thorn tree-Semi-desert, , Dry Tropical Semi-desert, Desert, , Dry Subtropical, Semi desert, Desert, , Semi-desert, , Dry Tropical, Semi-desert, Desert, , Dry Subtropical, Semi desert, Desert, Mid Latitude, Semi desert, Desert, , Dry Desert, , Dry-Tropical Desert, , Dry sub-tropical Desert, , Dry Mid-latitude Desert, , Tundra Biome, , Arctic Tundra, , Tundra, , Alpine Tundra, , Highland climate, Alpine zone, , World Classification of Vegetation, Trophophyte:, Hygrophyte:, , Tropical deciduous, vegetation and grass., , Humid areas i.e. Equatorial, hot wet forests., , Hydrophyte:, , Vegetation of watery areas., , Xerophyte:, , Tropical Deciduous desert, vegetation., , Mesophyte:, , Temperate areas vegetation., , Cryophyte:, , Vegetation of Tundra and, cold regions., , Halophyte:, , Salty areas vegetation, (Mangrove)., , Lithophyte:, , Vegetation of Rocks & Stones., , Points to remember, , 1. Maple, Walnut, Mulberry, Magnolia and, Camphor trees are found in temperate, evergreen forests., , [77], , 2. The “Mediterranean” type of vegetation occurs in central California and central Chile., 3. The “desert type” of vegetation is found in, coastal Peru and southern California., , 4. Alternate wet and dry seasons cause the, growth of distinctive vegetation called, “Tropical Savannah”., 5. The tropical evergreen forest consists of the, trees like lions, broad-leaved evergreens,, flowering and fruit plants and their leaves, fall all at the same time., , 6. The occurrence of wet winter and dry summer is unique among Mediterranean climate, types and results in distinctive natural vegetation known as “Sclerophyll forest”., , 7. In tropical monsoon type of climate, the, rainfall is seasonal and generally occurs in, summer and may be as high as 300 cm in, favourable location., 8. In “Tropical Savanna” climate, the rainfall, , Chronicle IAS Academy

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is 160 cm and temperature is about 23°c., 9. The “Steppe” are the areas of comparatively lower temperature and slightly more, precipitation., , 12. The “alpine” forests are found from “2880, to 3600” m height on Himalayas., , CH, IA R, S, O, N, AC I, C, AD L, E, EM, Y, , 10. The “China-type” climate is a type of humid, “mesothermal climate” and characterized by, warm summer and cool-winter. Its average temperature is 19°c and annual rainfall is “120 cm”., , 11. The “highlands type of climate” is found in, the Mountainous region of Himalayas, Tibet plateau, Rockies, Andes and Alps, which, have high diurnal range of “temperature”., ,


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CHRONICLE, , POPULATION, , IAS ACADEMY, , A CIVIL SERVICES CHRONICLE INITIATIVE, , 7. Mineral and Energy Resources: Population, map of W. Europe is more or less identical, to distribution of coalfields and other, industries. S. African Rand, Appalachian, Coalfield, Donetz Basin, W-Australia also, show its effects., , CH, IA R, S, O, N, AC I, C, AD L, E, EM, Y, , Human geography embraces the study of, human race, the growth of human numbers, the, movements and density of population, etc. Thus, human geography is a science which studies the, relationship between man and environment., , Factors Influencing Population Distribution, , 1. Accessibility: Man was unable to reach, inaccessible areas of forest, islands,, mountains for a long time, so such areas, have low density as in the Amazon basin,, S. American Plateaus, etc., 2. Relief: Steep gradients, high mountains,, rugged-terrain restrict settlement because, of hindrances in movement. Similarly rivers, may exert either a positive or negative, effects. Most attract settlement but some, are liable to flooding, change of coarse and, so hinder settlements., , 3. Altitude and Latitude: There are very few, settlements above 5500 m in Andes and, Himalayas. 'La Paz' (Bolivian Capital) is at, the height of 3640 m. Low latitude high, plateau areas provide positive advantage., 4. Climate: Extreme heat, cold, humidity and, aridity deter settlement. Success of crops, also depends on climate. But no specific, climate is optimum for settlement as obvious, from the fact that two of the world primary, concentration of population lie in middle, latitude and the third is located in the, tropics. For example Java Island and, Amazon Basin have the same climate but, population density of Java is over 500, whereas Amazon basin has less than 1., 5. Soil: Deltaic and alluvial soils attract settlement, while laterites and podzols repel. All ancient, civilizations evolved in alluvial soil regions., Higher density of Jawa as compared to, Sumatra is also due to soil fertility., , 6. Natural Vegetation: It may also exert, positive as well as negative effects on, settlement., , [79], , 8. Economic Factor: Density of population is, directly proportional to technological and, economic advancement. Migration of, Indian labourers to Mauritius, Trinidad and, Fiji under colonial rule shows this pattern., , 9. Political Factors: Unlike communist countries, in the western world various inducements, may be offered to encourage migration to, new towns. Mass migration of Asian from, Uganda in 1972 is another example., , 10. Historical Factor: Relatively recent settlement, of Australia is the basic reason for its low, density of 2. While high density of India is, liable to be explained in terms of its long, history of civilization and occupancy., I. High Density zone, , 1. East Asia including China, Japan,, Korea, Philippines, etc., , 2. S.E. Asia including Burma, Malaysia,, Indonesia,, Thailand,, Cambodia,, Vietnam., 3. S.Asia including India, Srilanka,, Bangladesh, Bhutan, Nepal, Pakistan etc., , 4. N.W. Europe: including European, former USSR., 5. N.E. Coastal N. America, •, , The first three concentration zones, belong to Monsoonal regions having, about 57% of the world population., China and India alone constitute 38%, of world population. East Asia has, 25% and S.Asia has 23% of World, Population., , •, , Monsoonal regions are characterized, by vast fertile land, favourable, , Chronicle IAS Academy

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5. High altitude plateau like Tibet, (density of below 3), Bolivia., , Western Europe and NE N. America, have very high population density, due to tremendous development of, secondary and tertiary industries., , 7. High latitude regions like Alaska, N., Canada, Greenland, Siberia (density, of about 1)., , 6. Mountains with altitude above 5000, ft., , CH, IA R, S, O, N, AC I, C, AD L, E, EM, Y, , •, , climate for agriculture, perennial, rivers, paddy farming and historical, inertia of human settlement and all, these favour greater concentration., , •, , Although having almost infertile, lands, small, countries, like, Netherlands, Belgium, Luxemberg, have very high density because of, high industrial development and, other non-primary activities like, fisheries and forestry., , II. Medium Density Zone, •, , The density of this zone is between 50, and 70. Their zone contains 5% of the, world population., , •, , It includes most geographical regions of, Savanna land, mid-latitude regions and, the plateau regions of Equatorial and, Monsoonal condition., , •, , Most of the countries in this region have, entered into the 2nd phase of, demographic transition, i.e. witnessing, population explosion., , •, , It includes Mediterranean coastal parts, of Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia in N., Africa, Mediterranean coast of Asia,, Plains of Tigris and Euphrates, Eastern, Brazil, S.E. Australia, Californian, Region, Coastal Argentina, Venezuela, and Chile, South Africa etc., , III. Low Density Zone, •, , It includes regions having population, density below 50. It includes about 55%, geographical area of the world., , •, , They are the regions of invariable, geographical condition or the regions of, extremely low density, e.g., 1. Dense forest like Amazon and Zaire, basin., , Demographic Transition Theory, , Formulated by Frank Notestein in 1953, the, theory of Demographic Transition makes an, attempt to document the experience of, developing countries as affected by the presentday economic growth. 'Demographic Transition', is described as the passage through which, countries move from high birth and death rates, to low ones. This has been the experience of, countries going through a process of modernizing, economic and social development., Stages of Demographic Transition, , 1. The first stage is characterized by high birth, and death rates. High death rates in such a, society could be due to chronic malnutrition,, famines and epidemics, inadequate, medicinal and health services and poor living, condition. High birth rates are influenced, by the socio-cultural system (i.e. illiteracy,, early marriage, traditional values, religious, beliefs, demand for family labour, etc.)., , 2. In stage two, that of a developing country,, the death rates drop rapidly due to, improvements in food supply and sanitation,, which increase life spans and reduce disease., These changes usually come about due to, improvements in farming techniques, access, to technology, basic healthcare, and, education. Without a corresponding fall in, birth rates this produces an imbalance, and, the countries in this stage experience a large, increase in population., , 2. Dense forest like Taiga, , 3. Cold deserts like Central Asiatic,, Patagonia., 4. Hot deserts like Sahara (density of, about 1), Australian desert., , [80], , Chronicle IAS Academy

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1975 AD, , 4 billion, , 1987 AD, , 5 billion, , 2000 AD, , 6 billion, , 2025 AD, , 8.5 billion (estimated), , 2050 AD, , 10 billion (estimated), , CH, IA R, S, O, N, AC I, C, AD L, E, EM, Y, , 3. In stage three, birth rates fall due to access, to contraception, increases in wages,, urbanization, a reduction in subsistence, agriculture, an increase in the status and, education of women, a reduction in the, value of children's work, an increase in, parental investment in the education of, children and other social changes., Population growth begins to level off., , 4. During stage four there are both low birth, rates and low death rates. Birth rates may, drop to well below replacement level as has, happened in countries like Germany, Italy, and Japan, leading to a shrinking population,, a threat to many industries that rely on, population growth. As the large group born, during stage two ages, it creates an economic, burden on the shrinking working population., Death rates may remain consistently low or, increase slightly due to increases in lifestyle, diseases due to low exercise levels and high, obesity and an aging population in, developed countries., , Growth Rate of Developing Countries, , 1. Countries of Explosion: Most of the Islamic, countries, Latin America, S. Africa, S.EAsian countries. It has very high birth rate, over 30% and low death rate of 15%, so, natural increase is very high., , 2. Countries of Potential Explosion:, Central African & some S.E Asian, countries like Cambodia, Laos, Vietnam., At present both high birth rate and high, death rate over 40%. But in the near, future death rate will go down hence, the population explosion., , Races of the World, , (a) Caucasoid: The Caucasoids are numerically, one of the largest groups and it includes not, only white Europeans and people of, European origin living elsewhere, but also, Arabs and most of the people of the Indian, sub-continent. It accounts for 33% of the, world population. Caucasoids are also, divided into Nordic (Northern Europe),, Alpine (central Europe) and Mediterranean, people (Arabs, Jews and People of Indian, sub-continent)., , (b) Mongoloids: Mongoloids are represented by, the Chinese. Amerinds (native American, Indians) are perhaps an early offshoot while, the Polynesians are a sub-group of the, Mongoloids with a great deal of racial, intermixture. They constitute 43% of the world, population., (c) Negroids: The Negroids are represented by, the African people., , (d) Australoids: Mostly tribal people are, represented by these races., , (e) Hottentots and Bushmen: Africa tribe of, West coast and Atacama desert., , Population Terms, , 3. Countries of Managed Population: They, have successfully managed the growth rate, like China (1.2%), Jamaica (1.4%), S. Africa, (0.8%) and El-Salvador (1.2%)., , Birth Rate: Number of the live births per, year per 1,000 of the population., , World Population, , Growth, , 1 AD, , 0.25 billion, , Infant Mortality: Number of deaths of children, below 1 year of age per 1,000 of the population., , 1650 AD, , 0.50 billion, , 1820 AD, , 1 billion, , 1930 AD, , 2 billion, , 1960 AD, , 3 billion, , [81], , Death Rate: Number of deaths per year per, 1,000 of the population., , Life Expectancy: The average age at which, people die. It does not mean the age at which, most people die., , Migration: Migration is broadly defined as, permanent or semi-permanent shifting of residence., , Chronicle IAS Academy

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Natural Increase: Excess of births over, deaths per 1,000 of population. This does not, include increase in population due to, immigration., , New Zealand, , Masai, , East Africa, , Mbuti, , North Equatorial region, , Papuans, , New Guinea, , Poonan, , Borneo, , Pygmies, , Congo (Zaire) Basin, , Red Indians, , North America, , Samoyeds, , Asiatic Tundra, , Tartars, , Siberia, , Tawa, , Near Equator, , Veddas, , Sri Lanka, , Yakut, , Tundra region, , Yukaghirs, , East Siberia, , CH, IA R, S, O, N, AC I, C, AD L, E, EM, Y, , Net Reproduction Ratio: Rate at which, women are replaced by daughters who will have, children., , Maori, , Optimum Population: A country is said to, have optimum population when the number of, people is in balance with the available resources., Regional Variation in Growth, , World growth rate, , :, , 1.7%, , Africa, , :, , 3.0%, , Latin America, , :, , 2.2%, , Asia, , :, , 1.7%, , Former USSR, , :, , 1.0%, , N. America, , :, , 0.9%, , Europe, , :, , 0.3%, , Oceania, , :, , 1.5%, , Developing Countries, , :, , 2.0%, , Developed countries, , :, , 0.6%, , Tribes of World, , Aborigines Earliest people of Australia, Bantus, , Central and Southern Africa, , Bedouins, , Nomadic tribe in Africa and, South West Asia, , Berbers, , Algeria, Morocco, Tunisia., , Bindibu, , Western Australia, , Bushman, Eskimo, , South west-Africa, Kalahari Desert, Tundra region in Canada and, Greenland, , Points to remember, , 1. 'Life expectancy' refers to the average age, at which people die; it is 62 years in India,, 80 years in Japan and 77 years in Britain., 2. "Jarawas" are, Andaman., , inhabitants, , of, , Little, , 3. "Gauchos" are nomads of the Pampas or, Uruguay and Argentina., 4. "Eskimos"are the group of people known, as Mongoloid., 5. The Nilotic and Hamitic people of eastern, Africa belong to the Negroid group., 6. North-West Europe has the highest density, of population., 7. "Kikuyu" are the group of people of the, Kenya region., 8. "Masai" is the aborigines of tropical, grassland of east Africa., , Finns, , Tundra of Europe, , Gaucho, , Uruguay, Argentina, , Hamits, , North-West Africa, , Kirghiz, , Steppes of Asia, , Kikuyu, , Kenya, , 10. "Bedouins" are the pastoral nomadic tribe, in Arabia who depends upon camel, breeding and roam in search of fodder., , Lapps, , Tundra of Europe, , 11. The "working age group" or "population" is, , [82], , 9. "Bushmen" is the aborigines of Kalahari, Desert of Africa especially living in Namibia,, Botswana and Angola., , Chronicle IAS Academy

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constituted by the people of "15 to 59" years., 12. The population below the 13 years of age is, designated as young and over 60 years as "old"., , 15. The highest density of urban population in, a descending order; Singapore (100%),, Belgium (96.8%), U.K. (88.2%) and, Netherlands (70.0%)., , CH, IA R, S, O, N, AC I, C, AD L, E, EM, Y, , 13. Five largest linguistic group in descending, orders in India: Hindi, Bengali, Telugu,, Marathi and Tamil which constitute 40.42%,, 8.30%, 7.87%, 7.45% and 6.32% respectively., , 14. In terms of the number of speakers "Hindi", occupies "fourth" place in the world., ,


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CHRONICLE, , HUMAN, SETTLEMENT, , A CIVIL SERVICES CHRONICLE INITIATIVE, , Settlements can also be classified on the, basis of shape and pattern into:, , CH, IA R, S, O, N, AC I, C, AD L, E, EM, Y, , The functional typology of human settlements is shaped, among others, by their political? administrative function. Its distinctive place, is determined by subjective factors, such as the, political administrative decisions, which have, changed the course of some settlements to the, benefit of others, or reverted them from their, normal, natural evolution. That means outside, involvement in space organization to the detriment of self?organization, the latter being the, outcome of the permanent tendency of territorial systems to rebalance from exogenous, factors?induced dysfunctions., Settlements are classified on the basis of size, and function into URBAN and RURAL., , IAS ACADEMY, , 1. Compact settlements:-, , i. In these settlement houses are built very, close to each other., ii. Such settlements are found in river valleys and fertile plains., iii. The people are closely tied and share, common occupations., , 2. Dispersed settlements:-, , i. In these settlements houses are built far, apart from each other., ii. These settlements consist of one or two, houses and cultural feature such as a, church or a temple binds the settlement, together., , 1. Urban settlements:, , i. These types of settlement are nodal in, character and have secondary and tertiary activities., , iii. Such settlements are found over hills, plateau and highlands., , ii. The chief occupation of the people of urban areas is non-agricultural i.e. industry, trade and services., iii. The major function of an urban area are, trades and commerce, transport and, communication, mining and manufacturing, defence, administration, cultural, and recreational activities., iv. Population density is high and the settlement size is large., , 2. Rural settlements:, , i. These settlements are chiefly concerned, with primary activities such as agriculture, mining, fishing, forestry etc., , ii. Most of the people of rural settlement are, engaged in agricultural work., , [84], , Rural Settlements, , Rural Settlements: Rural settlements are most, closely and directly related to land. They are dominated by primary activities such as agriculture, animal husbandry, fishing etc. The settlements size is, relatively small. Types of the settlement are determined by the extent of the built-up area and interhouse distance. The three factors are:, •, , Physical factors -, , a. Nature of terrain:- Dispersed type of, settlements is found in remote jungles,, small hills of Himachal Pradesh. Compact, settlements are found in highly productive alluvial plains of Punjab., , iii. The major function of rural settlement is, agriculture and each settlement specializes in various activities., , b. Altitude:- Dispersed settlements are, found in hills of Meghalaya and clustered, and semi-clustered settlements are found, in Gujarat plains., , iv. Population density is small and the settlement size is small., , c. Climate:- due to frequent droughts settlement may become hamleted., , Chronicle IAS Academy

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d. Availability of water:- Scarcity of water, in Rajasthan has resulted in development, of compact settlements., •, , Cultural and ethnic factors -, , e. Such settlements are found in Gujarat, plain and parts of Rajasthan., 3. Hamleted settlement: a. When a large settlement gets fragmented, into several smaller units physically separated from each other but bears a common name it forms hamleted settlement., , CH, IA R, S, O, N, AC I, C, AD L, E, EM, Y, , a. Caste and tribal structure:- due to ethnic factors settlement may become fragmented and Hamleted e.g. Chhattisgarh., , settle on the outer flanks of the village., , b. Religion:- people of same religion prefer, to live together making a settlement large, or small., , •, , Security factors -, , a. Defence from invasions and Wild animals:- due to defence from dacoits, wild, animals or fear settlements may cluster, and form compact settlements., , On the basis of the type of rural settlements found in India are:, , 1. Clustered, agglomerated and nucleated, settlement: a. In this type of settlement the built-up area, is compact and inter-house distance is, small., , b. In this type of village the general living, area is distinct and separatedfrom the, surrounding farms., c. Such settlements are found in highly productive alluvial plains (Punjab), in the, valleys of Shiwaliks (Deheradun) and in, north eastern states., , d. Such settlements are also formed due to, security and defence reasons (e.g., Madhya Pradesh) or scarcity of water or, cultivable land (Rajasthan)., , 2. Semi-clustered settlements: -, , a. In this type of settlement the built-up area, is less compact as compared to the clustered settlement., , b. It may result from segregation or fragmentation of a large compact village., c. Some sections of a village society choose, or is forced to live a little away from the, main cluster or village., d. The land-owning and dominant community occupies the central part of the main, village, whereas people of lower status of, , [85], , b. It occurs due to social and ethnic factors., , c. These small units of settlements are, known as panna, para, palli, nagla, dhani, etc., d. Such settlements are found in Ganga, plains, lower valleys of Himalayas., , 4. Dispersed settlement: -, , a. When a settlement has a few isolated huts, it is called dispersed settlement., , b. These types of settlements are found in, remote jungles, small hills with a few, farms and pastures on the slope., c. It results from extremely fragmented and, small resource support., , d. They are found in Meghalaya,, Uttaranchal, Himachal Pradesh and, Kerala., On the basis of forms or shapes of the settlements:, , These may be a number of geometrical forms, and shapes such as:, , a. Linear Pattern: It is commonly found along, main roads, railways, streams, etc. It may, have a single row of houses arranged along, the main artery. For example rural settlements found along the sea coast, river valley, mountain ranges etc., , b. Rectangular Pattern: This is a very common, type which develops around the rectangular, shape of agricultural fields as it is common to, find a system of land measurement based on, square units. Village paths and cart tracks also, confirm to the rectangular field patterns and, run through the village in north-south and, east-west directions. Accessibility to farms and, fields and connectivity to other settlements lead, to rectangular shape of settlements. The settlements of coastal Maharashtra and Andhra, , Chronicle IAS Academy

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riverside, a road, an orchard, a well or even, a place of worship. Such patterns are common in the delta region where the dwellings, simply follow the fan shaped profile of the, delta as in the case of Mahanadi, Godavari,, Krishna, Cauvery, etc. Such patterns are also, common in the Himalyan foothills., , Pradesh and either side of Aravali hills, etc., may be cited for examples., , CH, IA R, S, O, N, AC I, C, AD L, E, EM, Y, , c. Square Pattern: This is basically a varient, of rectangular type. Such a pattern is associated with villages lying at the crossing of, cart tracks or nroads and also related to, features restricting the extension of the village outside a square space. These features, may include an old boundary wall, thick, orchards, a road or a pond., d. Circular Pattern: In the upper Doab and, Trans - Yamuna districts, Malwa region,, Punjab and Gujarat, large villages are characterized by a very high degree of compactness. The outer walls of dwellings adjoin each other and present a continuous, front so that when viewed from outside,, the villages look like a walled and fortified, enclosure pierced by a few openings. The, round form was a natural outcome of, maximum aggregation for the purpose of, defence during the past., e. Radial Pattern: In this type, a number of, streets converge on one centre which may, be a source of water (pond, well), a temple, or mosque, a centre of commercial activity, or simply an open space. Thus, the streets, seem to be radiating from a common centre. Examples are settlements near, Gurushikar, Mount Abu in Rajasthan,, Vindhyachal in Uttar Pradesh, etc., f., , Checker Board Pattern: This is a type of, settlement found generally at the junction, of two roads. The village streets meet each, other at an angle or are parllel to each, other. This is because of the tendency to, align the dwellings along cardinal axes. This, pattern is common in the northern plains., , g. Elongated Pattern: Such settlement occurs as, a result of elongation of the rectangular pattern due to influence of site features. For instance, in the Ganga plains, in areas liable to, inundation, the rectangular pattern becomes, unusually elongated along the high ground., Even otherwise the advantage offered by riverside location forces such a pattern., h. Fan Shaped Pattern: This is seen where some, focal points or line is situated at one end of, the village. A focal object may be a tank a, , [86], , Major problem of rural settlements are:, i., , Rural settlements in the developing countries have poor infrastructure facilities., , ii. Supply of water to rural settlements in, developing countries is not adequate., People in villages, particularly in mountainous and arid areas have to walk long distances to fetch drinking water., iii. Water borne diseases such as cholera and jaundice are common problem because of lack of, safe drinking water and unhygienic conditions., iv. Villages are adversely affected by the conditions of drought and flood. This in turn, affects the crop cultivation., v. The absence of toilet and garbage disposal, facilities cause health related problems., vi. The houses made up of mud, wood and thatch, get damaged during heavy rains and floods., vii. Most houses have no proper ventilation., , viii.Unmetalled roads and lack of modern communication network causes difficulties in, providing emergency services during floods., ix. It is also difficult to provide adequate health, and educational infrastructure for large, rural population. The problem is particularly serious where houses are scattered, over a large area., , Urban Settlements, , According to the census of India urban areas are those which satisfy the conditions given, below., (a) All places with a municipality corporation,, cantonment board or notified town area, committee etc., (b) All other places which satisfy the following criteria:, , Chronicle IAS Academy

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(i) a minimum population of 5000, (ii) at least 75 percent of male working, population engaged in non-agricultural, sector, and, , 5. Trading and Commercial Towns:- Many, old towns were famous as trade centres such, as Lahore in Pakistan, Baghdad in Iraq and, Agra in India. Some towns have developed, as transport towns such as Rotterdam in, the Netherlands, Aden in Yemen and, Mumbai in India are port towns., , CH, IA R, S, O, N, AC I, C, AD L, E, EM, Y, , (iii) a density of population of at least 4,000, persons per square kilometer., , 4. Industrial Towns:- Mining and manufacturing regions. Dhanbad and Khetri are examples of mining towns. Towns which have, developed due to setting up of industries such, as Jameshdpur are called industrial towns., , Therefore, there are two broad groups of, town or urban settlement. The places which satisfy the conditions mentioned in category (a) are, known as statutory town and the conditions mentioned in category (b) are known as census towns., Urban agglomeration may consist of any one, of the three combinations given below:, , (i) a town and its adjoining urban outgrowth;, (ii) two or more contiguous towns with or, without their outgrowths; and, , (iii) a city and one or more adjoining towns, with their outgrowths together forming, contiguous streatch., , Examples of urban outgrowths are university campus, cantonment area, port area-seaport, and air port, railway colonies, etc., Functional Classification of urban settlements, , This is the most popular and widely accepted, classification of urban places in India as well as, in other parts of the world., The cities are divided as:, , 1. Administrative Towns:- National capitals,, which have headquarters of the administrative offices of Central Government, are, called administrative towns, such as new, Delhi, Canberra, Moscow, and Washington., 2. Defence Towns:- Centres of military activities are known as defence towns. They, are of three types: Fort towns, Garrison, towns and Naval bases. Jodhpur is a fort, town; Mhow is a garrison town; and Kochi, is a naval base., , 3. Cultural Towns:- towns famous for religious, educational or recreational functions, are called cultural towns. Places of pilgrimage, such as Jerusalem, Mecca, Jagannath, Puri and Varanasi etc. are considered as, religious towns. There are also recreational, towns such as Las Vegas in the USA., , [87], , Classification on the basis of size:, , Depending on the size and the services available and functions rendered, urban centres are, designated as town, city, million city,, conurbation, and megalopolis., i., , Town: Population size in town is higher, than the village. Functions such as, manufacturing, retail and wholesale trade, and, professional services exist in towns., , ii. City: A city may be regarded as a leading, town. Cities are much larger than towns, and have a greater number of economic, functions. They tend to have transport terminals, major financial institutions and, regional administrative offices. When the, population crosses the one million mark it, is designated as a million city., iii. Conurbation: The term conurbation was, coined by Patrick Geddes in 1915 and applied to a large area of urban development, that resulted from the merging of originally, separate towns or cities. Greater London,, Greater Mumbai, Manchester, Chicago and, Tokyo are examples., iv. Megalopolis: This Greek word meaning, "great city", was popularised by Jean, Gottman (1957) and signifies 'super- metropolitan' region extending, as union of, conurbations. The urban landscape stretching from Boston in the north to south of, Washington in U.S.A. is the best known example of a megalopolis., , Problems in urban settlements:, The town and cities grow in size and number as the urban population expands. The rapid, , Chronicle IAS Academy

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rate of Urbanisation in developed and developing countries brings a host of urban problems due to a large increase in the number of, urban dwellers., The problems are:, , (c) Control the rural urban migration, it can, reduce the overcrowding in the city, (d) increase water supply by building more, reservoirs., , CH, IA R, S, O, N, AC I, C, AD L, E, EM, Y, , 1. Housing- lack of house and can't afford of, proper housing which leads to development, of squatter settlement., , squatter settlements instead of removing them, by providing piped water and sanitation., , 2. Water supply- shortage of water supply, due to the demand of water supply and, poor piping system., 3. Transport- too many cars in major cities., Poor public transport system, , 4. Pollution- domestic and industrial waste, contribute to land pollution in urban areas., , Some steps that can be taken to overcome, these problems are:, (a) Provide low cost housing to relocate slum, dwellers and squatter., (b) Improve the living condition of slum and, , (e) more treatment plants should be built and, old rusty pipes must be replaced to increase, water quality., (f) educate the public in the virtues of water, conservation., (g) to ease congestion in the developed countries, road and railways network have to extended., (h) Build extensive expressways and wider, roads to ensure smooth flow of traffic., (I) Encourage to use public transport to reduce traffic congestion such as MRT., (j) Increase awareness of health, hygiene and, ills of pollutions., ,


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CHRONICLE, , AGRICULTURE, , IAS ACADEMY, , A CIVIL SERVICES CHRONICLE INITIATIVE, , burnt nutrients are returned to the soil. On the, interval few years the process is repeated and, this a cycle is formed in the long run., , CH, IA R, S, O, N, AC I, C, AD L, E, EM, Y, Different Agricultural types, , (1) On the basis of supply of land: Intensive, agriculture and Extensive agriculture, •, , •, , Intensive method is practiced where the, supply of land is limited and density of, population is high. China, Japan, India,, UK, Holland, Germany and Belgium, practice this method., Extensive method is practiced in sparsely, populated area - where per man land, area is higher and where there is scope, for bringing additional land under cultivation e.g. USA, Russia, Australia, Argentina and Brazil., , (2) On the basis of supply of moisture: Humid farming, Irrigation farming and Dry, farming., •, , •, , •, , Humid farming is practiced where there, is no dearth of rainwater for the, production of crops. Problems of water, logging and drainage and soil erosion are, present in the heavy rainfall areas., Irrigation farming is practiced in those, areas where rainfall is seasonal and the, amount is not satisfactory for crop, production. In the river valleys of the, world this farming is practiced., , Dry farming: areas having very little, rainfall less than 50cm and very little, irrigation facilities practice dry farming., Crops which can bear the high cost of, production e.g. cotton and wheat is, grown under this method., , The types of farming practised are discussed, below:, A. Shifting cultivation, , A primitive form of agriculture practiced, mainly in the tropics wherein a plot of land in, cultivated for a few years, until the production, declines due to soil exhaustion. Slash and burn, method is practiced in which forests are cut and, , [89], , Different local names of shifting Cultivation:, Ladang, , Malaysia, , Chengin, , Philippines, , Milpa, , Central America & Mexico, , Rocha, , Brazil, , Masole, , Zaire & Central Africa, , Jhum, , N.E. Indie, , Ray, , Vietnam & Laos, , Fang, , Equatorial African Countries, , Logan, , West Africa, , Conuco, , Venezuela, , Tongya, , Myanmar, , Chenna, , Sri Lanka, , Tamarai, , Thailand, , Huma, , Java & Indonesia, , Jhum, , N.E. India, , Bewar, , Bundelkhand, , Deepa, , Bastar, , Jara & Erica, , Southern States, , Batra, , South-eastern Rajasthan, , Podu, , Andhra Pradesh, , Kumari, , Western Ghats in Kerala, , Kaman, Winga, & Dhavi, , Orissa, , B. Plantation farming:, , An estate farming mostly in tropical and, subtropical regions devoted to large scale production of one or more cash crops e.g. Coffee,, Rubber and Tea, etc., , Chronicle IAS Academy

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C. Truck farming:, , CH, IA R, S, O, N, AC I, C, AD L, E, EM, Y, , Refers to the intensive cultivation of vegetables for the market and therefore is corresponding to the term market gardening that is, usually done in U.K. Truck farms, however, appears to be more specialized and truck farms are, generally situated farther from the markets., , els). Approximately two-thirds of the wheat produced in the world is used for human food and, about one-sixth is used for livestock feed. Industrial uses, seed requirements, and post-harvest, losses account for the remaining withdrawals, from the world wheat granaries. The geographical concentration of wheat is found between 3055°N latitude in the Northern hemisphere and, between 20-40°S in Southern hemisphere., , D. Mixed farming:, , It refers to the combination of agriculture, and livestock farming., E. Collective farming:, , A type of agricultural organization started, in former USSR and then adopted in Eastern, Europe, China, N. Vietnam and N. Korea. Large, farms covering thousands of hectares are managed by co-operative bodies and the govt. and, called Kolkhoz and Sovkhoz respectively. The, workers receive shares of the sale proceeds as, wages, according to the work done., Kibbutz- community farming in Israel. These, are smaller than the collective farms., F. Nomadic Herding:, , It's a type of shifting pastoral farming in, which pastoralists move from one place to another in search of good pasture. It is mainly practiced in arid and hilly regions and primitive societies. Animals like Cattle, sheep and goat are, reared for milk, meat, wool etc., G. Transhumance:, , It is also concerned with animal husbandry, but in thin the people have their permanent, settlement and they move to a suitable place only, in adverse climatic condition and return back to, their homeland as the climatic condition becomes normal. Mountains of Himalayas, Rockies,, Alps and Norway are famous region for transhumance. In India Gaddis of Himachal Pradesh, and Bakarwals of J&K practice transhumance., , Food Grains, , I., , Wheat, , Wheat is the dominant grain of world commerce and is the staple food of millions of people., It is also an important part of the daily diet of, many millions more. The world wheat market is, enormous. Annual global wheat consumption, is in excess of 550 million tonnes (20 billion bush-, , [90], , Conditions of Growth, , (a) A minimum temperature of 16°C and bright, sunshine for ripening, and 100 frost free days., (b) A mild moist season with annual rainfall, ranging between 50 cm and 100 cm., (c) A relatively stiff, preferably loamy and nonacidic soils., (d) Level or slightly rolling lands to facilitate, mechanical methods of farming., , In terms of net output four countries viz., Russia, U.S.A., China and India contribute over, 50% of world production. But temperate countries like France, Spain, Argentina, and Australia are also important contributing most (20%), of world's wheat., Distribution of Wheat:, , USA: According to regional diversity of climate four major wheat growing belt can be distinguished they are:, (a) White wheat region of the Colombian, plateau;, (b) Hard red spring wheat of the N provinces;, (c) Hard red winter wheat of the W and S, provinces, and, (d) Soft red winter wheat of the Southern, states., , Russia: The wheat production is concentrated in black chernozem soil belt. They are, (a) The north Caucasus region producing, winter wheat in the south-western part and, (b) The Volga region of the spring wheat, , (c) The eastern regions including trans-Ural, and western Siberia producing best hard, spring wheat in the world., , Chronicle IAS Academy

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China: China is the largest producer of, wheat in the world. Wheat is produced in the, area irrigated by the Huang-Ho, Hopei, Shansi,, Shantung and Hainan districts are important, wheat producing areas., , CH, IA R, S, O, N, AC I, C, AD L, E, EM, Y, , Australia: The important wheat growing, areas are in the fertile plains of Murray Darling, basin and in the S.W. Australia. Uncertainty of, rainfall, great distance from markets and low, population are main deterrents., , the world. Sichuan basin is the largest producer, followed by Red Basin, riverine flood plain of, Yangtze basin, Yunnan and Kweichow provinces, Fukien, Kwanghing and Kwangsi and, Hunan, Kiangsi and Chungking province. The soil, fertility, use of manures and unified management, are responsible for higher productivity., , Argentina: Wheat farming is confined to the, great wheat crescent which is bounded to the, west by the 40 cm isohyets and to the east by the, 100 cm isohyets lines., Export:-, , USA, Canada, Argentina and Australia are, leading exporting countries whose share is almost 80%. Britain, Japan, Germany, Belgium,, Holland, Italy are leading importers., II. Rice, , Rice is normally grown as an annual plant,, although in tropical areas it can survive as a, perennial crop for up to 30 years. The rice plant, can grow to 1-1.8 m tall, occasionally more depending on the variety and soil fertility., Conditions of growth, , (i) Hot and humid climate - high degree of, temperature ranging between 20°-27°C and, minimum rainfall 120 cm. It also requires, water logging particularly in the early parts, of its growth and deep clayey loams., , (ii) Rice needs a level surface to ensure annual, flooding of the fields. It's most ideal habitat, is therefore, the great riverine flood-plains, of the world., Distribution:, , Monsoonal low lands of South-east Asia is the, most outstanding region for rice growing in the, world-accounting for 85% of the total rice acreage of the world and produce 90% of the world, output. The noted rice producing countries in the, world include China, India, Indonesia, Bangladesh,, Thailand, Vietnam, Myanmar, Italy, Spain, USA, and Brazil are other producing countries., China, , China is also the largest producer of rice in, , [91], , India is the second longest producer of rice, in the world., Bangladesh is the third largest producer of, rice, though rice is grown everywhere Dacca,, maymansingh, Bakharganj, Faridpur, Barisal, districts account bulk of the country's output., , Japan: rice is grown throughout the country; per hectare production is very high. But high, domestic demand and limited land forces the, country to import rice., The fertile alluvial plains of Irrawady in, Myanmar, the Red Basin of North Vietnam, the, Mekong Basin of South Vietnam, and the Menam, Basin of Thailand are also notable in rice production. Rice is also grown in Nile valley and, delta of Egypt, S.E. Brazil and Gulf of Mexico in, the USA and Po river valley in Italy., Export:-, , Very meager amount of rice (2 to 5%) come, to the international market. The major rice exporting countries are China, Myanmar, USA,, Thailand, Brazil, India and Italy. Major importing countries are Indonesia Korea, Hongkong,, Srilanka and Bangladesh., III. Maize, , Maize is widely cultivated throughout the, world, and a greater weight of maize is produced, each year than any other grain. The United States, produces (42.5%) of the world's harvest; other top, producing countries includes China, Brazil,, Mexico, Argentina, India and France., Conditions of growth:, , No other cereal is cultivated under such diverse climatic conditions and no other cereal crop, is so widely distributed both in tropical and, warm temperate latitudes. Even then favorable, conditions are:, (i) Temperature 20-25°C, (ii) Long and warm summer with considerable, , Chronicle IAS Academy

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rainfall followed by little rainfall of autumn, and cold winters is ideal and optimum, conditions, , not used for rice/wheat short supply of, moisture led barley to be grown in further, forward to the pole in the north and high, on the high monitions slope., Distribution:, , (iv) Deep rich soils of the sub-tropical latitudes, with high nitrogen content well drained, plain lands are most commonly preferred, for maize growing., , Russia is the largest producer of barley in, the world. No other can causes is the most important producing zone. China is the second, largest producer of barley., , CH, IA R, S, O, N, AC I, C, AD L, E, EM, Y, , (iii) Rainfall 7-15 cm per month and during, season of 130 to 170 days., , Distribution:, , USA, Brazil, Mexico, China and Russia account, for 65% of the total world maize production., , USA accounts for half of the world's maize, production. The Corn Belt extends from central, Ohio to Central Nebraska. Iowa, Illinois, Indiana, Minnesota, Pennsylvania and Nebraska are, the principal maize producing states of the USA., In this belt maize is grown as rotation crop., In Argentina, Corn belt lies in the humid Pampas region, wet of the Parana river. Despite contributing only 3.5% in world production Argentina exports more than half of the total export., China is the second largest producer., , Brazil - Minas Gerais, Sao Paolo, Rio Grande, are important maize producing zone. The production is almost double of Argentina but consumed locally., Export: 16 per cent of the total global output, enters world market is sale. Argentina, USA,, France and South Africa are major exporting countries. Japan is the largest buyer, followed by Netherlands, Italy, Spain, UK, Germany and Denmark., IV. Barley, , Barley is a widely adaptable crop. It is currently popular in temperate areas where it is, grown as a summer crop and tropical areas, where it is sown as a winter crop. Its germination time is anywhere from 1 to 3 days. Barley, likes to grow under cool conditions but is not, particularly winter hardy. Barley is more tolerant of soil salinity than wheat, Conditions of Growth, , (i) A moderate amount of rainfall 75-100 cm., (ii) Short growing season, resistant to a number, of conditions, grown on lands which are, , [92], , In Europe the Mediterranean belt is of great, importance for barley cultivation. From Mediterranean region in the south-European barley, belt structures as far north's Arctic Circle and, from the Atlantic coast to the trade., Export: USA & Canada export 60% of the, world barley Argentina, Denmark and France are, other exporters. Germany, UK, Japan and Netherlands import almost half of the world's barley., V. Oats, , Oats are the hardest of all cereals. It is almost confined to northern hemisphere. The, oats are of paramount importance in the old, damp countries like Greenland, UK, Sweden,, Norway and grown in a significant proportion by the countries of Central and Eastern, Europe. Russia is the largest producer of oats, followed by the USA, Canada, Germany,, France and Poland., VI. Rye, , Rye is essentially a European agro-product, and is grown primarily in Eastern, Central and, Northern Europe. The main rye belt stretches, from northern Germany through Poland,, Ukraine, Belarus, Lithuania and Latvia into central and northern Russia. Rye is also grown in, North America (Canada and the USA), in South, America (Argentina, Brazil), in Turkey, in, Kazakhstan and in northern China., VII.Sorghum, , USA is the largest producer of Sorghum, in, China Sorghum is called Kaolin. In China, sorghum is fermented and distilled to produce, maotai, which is regarded as one of the country's, most famous liquors., VIII. Millet, Millets are major food sources in arid and, , Chronicle IAS Academy

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semi-arid regions of the world and India is the, largest producer of millets in the world., IX. Cotton, , The leading cotton producing nations like, the USA, Egypt, Mexico, Brazil, Peru, Sudan, Pakistan and Turkey are all leading exporters of, cotton in the world. The countries alone account, for 50% of the world's export. Japan is the single, largest buyer of cotton in the world., , CH, IA R, S, O, N, AC I, C, AD L, E, EM, Y, , The largest producers of cotton, currently, (2009), are China and India, with annual production of about 34 million bales and 24 million bales,, respectively; most of this production is consumed, by their respective textile industries. The largest, exporters of raw cotton are the United States,, , Export:, , Conditions of growth, , (i) Uniformly high temperature 20-25°C, during the growing period., , X. Jute, , Jute is a rain-fed crop with little need for fertilizer or pesticides. The production is concentrated, in Bangladesh and some in India. The jute fibre, comes from the stem and ribbon (outer skin) of the, jute plant. The fibres are first extracted by retting., , (ii) A frost-free season of 100-200 consecutive, days., , Conditions of growth, , (iii) Annual rainfall ranging between 60-90 cm., during the maturing period higher rainfall, is detrimental., , (i) A hot and humid climate with a minimum, temperature of 28°C and more than 200, cm of rainfall with 80 to 90% humidity, especially during the season., , (iv) Well drained fertile soils with high water, retentive capacity., , (ii) Cheap and plentiful supply of labour is, another contributing factor., , (v) Plentiful supply of cheap labour., Distribution:, , The crop is quite widely distributed in the, sub-tropical latitudes and a host of countries are, engaged in its production, but a few countries, viz. Russia, USA, China, India, and Egypt dominate the output., , USA: The area to the S.W. of Mississippi, river enjoys the overwhelming superiority in, cotton cultivation. Texas, Oklahoma and Arkansas are the most important. Mississippi, Nevada,, California are also important cotton producing, states. USA is the second largest producer of, cotton in the world., China: Great plains of Northern China that, encompasses the Hwang Ho, Yangtze Kiang,, Weitto valley and Szechwan Province, china is, the largest producer of cotton in the world., , Egypt is the producer of best quality cotton, in the world. The reasons for importance of raw, cotton in the world are (i) highly suitable climatic, and edaphic condition (ii) high demand for Egyptian long-staple cotton; (iii) long experience in, cotton mixing. Egypt accounts for 60-70% production of long staple cotton in the world., , [93], , India, Bangladesh and China account for, almost 98% of the world's jute production., Distribution:, , Bangladesh - Jute is the most important, cash crop in Bangladesh and is grown in almost, all the districts. The jute belt of Maymansingh,, Decca and Tippera and the old valley of, Brahmaputra is noted for very higher grade of, jute. On the banks of river Jamuna, Pabna, Bogra, and Rangpur district are also famous., Maymansingh is the largest producer of jute in, the world., China is the largest producer of jute in the, world. Jute producing regions are principally, located to the south of Yangtze Kiang river the, important provinces are Guangdong, Zhejiang,, Guanik, Jiangsu and Hunan., India is one of the largest producers of the, jute in the world., , Apart from these countries, Russia, Brazil,, Myanmar, Thailand and Nepal are also growing jute., Export:, Bangladesh is the largest exporter in the, , Chronicle IAS Academy

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world, contributing 65% of the world's export., India (5%), Nepal and Thailand are other exporters. U.K., Germany, Japan, Pakistan and, Spain are important importers., XI. Flax, , Kursk, Ukraine and Monrovia are important, producing areas. Italy produces the best quality, hemp, in the Po river valley and volcanic plains, in the south. India, Yugoslavia, Rumania, Hungary, Poland and Spain are other notable producers of hemp in the world., , CH, IA R, S, O, N, AC I, C, AD L, E, EM, Y, , Flax is an erect annual plant growing to 1.2, m (3 ft 11 in) tall, with slender stems. In the, United States, three states, North Dakota, South, Dakota, and Minnesota, raise nearly 100% of this, plant. It is used for manufacture of linen, is produced from seed from which linseed oil is extracted., , (iii) Large supply of labour, , Conditions of growth, , (i) Grows in areas having moderate rainfall, distributed evenly during the growing, periods warm and uniforms summer, temperature with high humidity are, required for the growth of plant., (ii) Clay loam soil so as to able to retain, moisture., (iv) Constant weeding is required in order to, ensure a better growth of the plant., (v) Like jute it requires rottening, Distribution:, , Practically all the flax fiber is produced in, Europe, Russia, Poland, France, Belgium, Holland, and Czech Republic are the principal producers., , Russia is the largest producer. More than, 80% of the world's flax comes from Russia. Kahn, Leningrad and Smolensk are the chief areas of, production. Poland, France and Belgium's place, come accordingly in production after Russia., XII. Hemp, , Hemp is one of the faster growing biomasses, known, producing up to 25 tonnes of dry matter per hectare per year, and one of the earliest, domesticated plants known. For a crop, hemp is, very environmentally friendly as it requires few, pesticides and no herbicides., Conditions of growth, , (i) Moderate rainfall, well distributed over, growing period of 110 days warm, conditions and high humidity., (ii) Well prepared and fertilized soil and, , [94], , XIII. Silk, , Silk is a natural protein fiber, some forms of, which can be woven into textiles. The bestknown type of silk is obtained from cocoons made, by the larvae of the mulberry silkworm Bombx, mori reared in captivity. The birth place of silk is, China as from there it spread to Japan, India,, Southern Europe and Western Asia., Commercial production of silk involves four, different stages: (a) growing of mulberry trees, (b) rearing of silk (c) tendering of cocoons (d), reeling of silk., The temperature should be between 20-30°C, each cocoon has 762 to 915 meters of filament. For, the ideal growth of cocoon, high temperature and, heavy rainfall is required. The mulberry trees can, be grown on poor acid and infertile soils. This is, why they are relegated to the rugged lands or hilly, tracts which are not available for food production., Distribution:, , Japan is leading producer of silk in the world, - the production is taking place from northern, Honshu to South Kyushu. The great concentration of production is in Lake Suwa region of, Central Honshu - high temperature heavy rainfall and rugged topography is easily available., China - Production is centered in south and, west of Shanghai, in parts of Szechwan basin, in, the delta region of Si-Kiang near Canton. Shantung, Peninsula also participates in production., Korea - the relief, soil and climatic conditions favors the growth and throughout the, country it is the subsidiary occupation of the, farmers., In Europe - PO valley of Italy is famous for, silk production. France is also important., India is the only country where all four types, of raw silk are produced- Mulberry, Eeri, Tusser,, and Muga., , Chronicle IAS Academy

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Export: Japan is the largest exporter contributing more than 70% followed by China, Korea, and Italy. USA is the largest country importing, more than 60% followed by UK, France, and India., , Japan - Tea is grown mostly on the Pacific, coast on the low terraced slopes of the mountains enriched with highly fertile volcanic soils., Uzi and Shizouka districts of southern Honshu, are most important tea growing areas., , CH, IA R, S, O, N, AC I, C, AD L, E, EM, Y, , XIV. Tea, , areas. In small quantity of tea is also grown in, Kandy and in the hills behind Gale and, Malara. Srilanka is the second largest exporter, of tea in the world., , Tea is the agricultural product of the leaves,, leaf buds, and internodes and is the most popular drink in the world in terms of consumption., Its consumption equals all other manufactured, drinks in the world - including coffee, chocolate,, soft drinks, and alcohol - put together.[4] Most, tea consumed outside East Asia is produced on, large plantations in India or Sri Lanka., Conditions of growth, , (i) High temperature of 27°C abundant rainfall, of about 200 cm and high amount of, moisture in the air. This climatic condition, confines the cultivation in rainy tropical, and humid tropical regions. High humidity,, heavy dews and morning fog favors rapid, development of young leaves., (ii) Relatively high sloping ground - so as to, prevent water logging in the plant and, should contain iron content acidic in nature., (iii) Large and cheap labour supply., Distribution:, , These environmental and economic features, are present in South and East Asian countries, and hence more than nine-tenth of production, comes from there continuously. More than 75%, of the global output of tea comes from India,, China, Srilanka, Japan and Indonesia. Outside, the realm of monsoonal Asia. The tea is grown, in USSR Kenya, Malawi and Turkey., India is the largest producer of tea in the, world., , China: Chief production areas are lying between the Yangtze and Sinkiang valleys. Red, soils of the hilly areas of the provinces of Hunan,, Anhui, Sichuan, Zhejiang and Fujian are important producing states. China has the largest area, under tea cultivation in the world. China is the, largest producing green leaf tea in the world., Srilanka - Tea states are highly concentrated in the Nuwara Eliya and the Badulla, , [95], , Indonesia: In Java island, the production is, concentrated the slopes of two extinct volcanoes, Godak and Salak on the western side. In N.East, part of Sumatra tea is also grown., , Taiwan is known for its wuling tea. The terraced fields around Taihoku are important tea, growing areas., Kenya is an important producer outside the, monsoonal realm. There tea is grown on the, Nairobi high lands Malawi, Mozambique at Tanzania are other producing countries in Africa., Export:, , India and Srilanka are first and second largest exporter of tea in the world followed by Indonesia, Bangladesh, Japan and Kenya. European and American countries are major importers e.g. U.K., USA, Russia, Australia, Canada,, Netherlands and Pakistan., XV. Coffee, , Coffee is a brewed drink prepared from, roasted seeds, commonly called coffee beans, of, the coffee plant. They are seeds of coffee cherries that grow on trees in over 70 countries. Coffee is usually propagated by seeds. The traditional, method of planting coffee is to put 20 seeds in, each hole at the beginning of the rainy season, Conditions of growth, , (i) Warm climate conditions annual range of, temperature is between 21° and 26°c and, winter temperature should not fall below 10°., , (ii) High rainfall ranging between 125 and 150, cm. The hot rainy season helps the plants, to grow rapidly and dry winter seasons, favors the proper ripening and harvesting., (iii) Well drained fertile, soil rich in plant nutrient, such as iron and potash are useful. Terra, , Chronicle IAS Academy

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Roxa soil is ideal for coffee plant. The plant, grows usually on hill slopes and highlands, having in altitude of 1800 to 2500 ft., Distribution:, , Distribution:, West African countries of Ghana, Ivory, Coast, Cameroon and Nigeria are the most important Cocoa producers in the world accounting for more than 70% of the world production,, rest of the production come from South American countries including Brazil, Ecuador, Venezuela, Dominican Republic and Mexico. Ghana is, the largest producer and exporter of cocoa is the, world-contributing half the country's export earnings. Cocoa cultivation is concentrated in the form, of a triangle which includes the three important, towns of Accra, Kumasi and Takoradi., , CH, IA R, S, O, N, AC I, C, AD L, E, EM, Y, , Four major coffee producing regions in the, world are:, , developed in the regions having about 27°C of, temperature and 200 cm of rainfall. It requires, deep clay soils rich in iron and potash and cheap, labor supply is also significant., , (a) South American region comprising Brazil,, Columbia, Ecuador and Venezuela and, Peru - account for 50% of the world's, production., , (b) Caribbean Region - Mexico and Al, Salvador, Guatemala and Costa Rica - 15%, of the world production., (c) Africa including Uganda, Ivory Coast,, Angola, Ethiopia, Malawi, Congo and, Kenya - contributes 30% of world output., (d) S.E. Asia comprising Indonesia Indian and, Philippines - 5% of the total output., , Brazil - Four states of Sao Paulo region, Parana, Espirito, Santos and Minas Gerais are, leading producers. Good soil and good drainage condition and intensive network of transportation apart from the favorable climatic conditions favor the concentration in this region., Brazil is the largest producer and exporter of, coffee in the world., , Columbia is the second largest producer., The great majority coffee estates are located with, in the high mountain slopes of the Andesaround Bogotá, Madellin, Manizales and Tolima, are the principal centers of the regions., , African Countries - The rainy uplands, rich, fertile soils and favorable climatic condition in, addition to abundant supply of cheap labor lead, to the rapid increase in output in recent years., Ivory Coast is the third largest producer of coffee in the world., , Nigeria - Important Cocoa growing regions, in the country are concentrated around Ibadan, in S.W. Nigeria which has the largest acreage., Brazil is the largest South American producer of cocoa. Bahia distt in N.E. Brazil is the, most important region. Ecuador - most of the, cocoa growing areas are concentrated in the, Guayaquil Lowlands which provides almost, optimum climatic condition for cocoa growing., Papua New Guinea is the most important, producer of cocoa of Oceania contributing a little, over 2% of world production., Export:, , The West African countries viz. Ghana,, Ivory coast, Cameroon and Nigeria are more or, less solely dependent on the earning from the, exports of cocoa, Ghana is the largest exporter, followed by Nigeria, Brazil and Ivory coast, USA, is the largest importer followed by UK, Germany, and Netherlands along with France, Japan, Belgium and Italy., , Export:, , XVII. Sugarcane, , More than 80% of total output enters the, global trade market. Brazil, Columbia, Ivory, Coast Uganda and Mexico are the chief exporting countries. USA, Germany, France, Italy, the, Netherlands and Japan are the main buying, countries. USA is the largest importer of coffee., , Sugarcane growing countries of the world, are lying between the latitude 36.7° north and, 31.0° south of the equator extending from tropical to subtropical zones., , XVI. Cocoa, , Condition of growth, (i) Warm climatic conditions the annual, temperature ranging between 21-27°C, , Cocoa is essentially a tropical crop, is best, , [96], , Chronicle IAS Academy

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(ii) It grows best in the regions having about, 125 cm of annual rainfall. If the amount of, rainfall exceeds the optimum level, the, sucrose content declines., , Mauritius and Fiji is two important islands,, countries grow sugarcane mainly for experts and, their economy is based on cane cultivation., XVIII. Sugar Beet, Sugar beet is a plant whose root contains a, high concentration of sucrose. It is grown commercially for sugar production. Sebewaing,, Michigan is known (to Americans) as the sugar, beet capital of the world., , CH, IA R, S, O, N, AC I, C, AD L, E, EM, Y, , (iii) Deep, well drained fertile soils are most, important for sugarcane cultivation water, logging is highly detrimental., , producing state., , (iv) Sugarcane growing is, highly labor intensive, in nature. Therefore, densely populated topical countries are most imported for sugarcane cultivation., Distribution:, , Conditions of growth, , Sugarcane is most widely grown in a number of tropical and sub-tropical countries but the, two principal sugarcane areas are (i) South-east, Asia-India, Pakistan, China, Indonesia and Thailand and (ii) Latin America - Cuba and Brazil., , (i) Sugar beet is a native of temperature climatic, regions with moist and mild winter and, moderate summer temperature. It is very, sensitive to annual ranges of rainfall which, should necessarily be around 60-65 cm., , China - contributes about 6% of the world's, sugarcane rugged Terrain limit the cultivable, areas only to river basins., , (ii) Loose friable deep soils which favor, uninterrupted penetration of the beet roots., , Indonesia - cane is most intensively a cultivated in the Java islands where the climoedaphic- economic condition is ideal., , India is the largest producer of cane in the, world., , Pakistan - produces a little over 4% of the, world output - cultivation is mainly concerned, in irrigated plains., Brazil - produces more than 15% of the, world output and comes next only to India - due, to suitability of environmental conditions. The, principal area of concentration include (a) the, coastal lands of the north-east in the states of, Prarahiba, Peruamnbuo, Alagoas and Bahia (b), The Minas Gerais district and (c) the coastal, plains North-east of Rio-de-Janerio., Cuba - its economy is to a great extent dependent on sugarcane cultivation - is the third, largest producer of sugarcane in the world. The, favorable environmental and economic conditions, led the concentration in the districts of Havana,, Metanzas, Orienta and Santa Clara. Nearness to, vast American market is an added advantage., , Australia - Produces little over 4% of the, world's sugarcane cultivation predominates, along the east coastal plains of Australia stretching from northern New South Wales to North, Queensland. Queensland is the most important, , [97], , (iii) Since it is a highly capital intensive crop,, its cultivation limited only to the rich, countries., Distribution:, , Europe and America have over whelming, superiority in beet cultivation since they contribute almost 85% of the global output., , Russia is the largest producer contributing the, fourth of the global output. Apart from Russia, France, Germany, Czech Republic is the dominant, producers.USA is the third largest producer contributing more than 8% of global output-mainly, concentrated east of the Mississippi river and in, the plains stretching from Montana to South Colorado in the Snake River Valleys. The bulk of, country's output comes from California. China,, Japan and Turkey are other producing countries., XIX. Tobacco, , Tobacco is an agricultural product processed, from the leaves of plants in the genus Nicotiana., It can be consumed, used as an organic pesticide and, in the form of nicotine tartarate., Conditions of growth, , (i) The plant prefers considerable warmth and, moisture; temperature, rainfall and soil affect, the quality. Excessively heavy rainfall reduces, , Chronicle IAS Academy

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yield and increases the acid content in the leaf., Distribution:, , Distribution:, South-east Asian countries including Malayan Archipelago, Indonesia, Thailand, Srilanka, and India have maintained their monopolistic control over global production of natural rubber. Lebanon and Nigeria are other producing countries., , CH, IA R, S, O, N, AC I, C, AD L, E, EM, Y, , Most of the producing areas are in the southern part of the middle latitudes and along the northern margin of the topics - USA, China, Brazil, India, and Russia are the chief producing countries., , provide the most ideal ground for rubber, growing. Gently undulating surface conditions, prevent water logging and check soil erosion., , China is the largest producer - production, takes place in the irrigated region of the Chengdu, in the Red Basin and in the Sikiang valley in the, south., USA is the second largest producer - North, Carolina, South Virginia, Georgia, Northern, Florida and South Carolina participate in tobacco production. North Carolina account 95%, of the national output., , Indonesia - Tobacco is produced in eastern, java and North Eastern part of Sumatra islands., The quality of cigar is very high., Philippines - Cagayan valley and glaciers, coastal plains of Luzon, and the central Visayan, Islands, Panay and Cebu., Brazil: Tobacco is grown on the eastern, coast plain., Export:, , USA, Dominican Republic, Cuba, India, Turkey, Brazil and Zimbabwe are important exporting countries, UK, Holland, Belgium, Germany, and Spain are the most important. UK is the largest importer country., XX. Rubber, , The commercial source of natural rubber latex is the Para rubber tree. Rubber latex is extracted from Rubber trees. The economic life, period of rubber trees in plantations is around, 32 years - up to 7 years of immature phase and, about 25 years of productive phase., Conditions of Growth, , (i) Rubber is a tropical crop of the humid, tropical countries, therefore, thrives best in, the regions having high temperature and, annual precipitation, where temperature is, less than 21°C it may not be grown. Rubber, survives best in the regions with about 150, to 250 cm. of rainfall., (ii) Deep loose and well-drained alluvial soils, , [98], , Malaysia ranks third in naturals rubber production. Accordingly favorable rainfall and temperature, extensive flat coastal plain cheap labor, and government patronage helped a lot to expand, rubber plantation. Here rubber is grown over 30%, of the cultivate land. Malaysia is the third producer and exporter of rubber in the world., Indonesia - Ranks second only to Thailand, in production. Mostly in Sumatra islands, and, climatic condition prevail here but small holdings, over taxation, lack of re-plantation and, over-exploitation of trees are reason for lower, production in Indonesia., India - Kerala accounts for 90% of the national rubber output., Thailand is the largest producer of rubber, in the world. Southern Thailand out-ranks all, other regions., Liberia, Nigeria, Ghana and Zaire are the, most important rubber producing of countries, in West Africa hold second place after SouthEast Asian nations., Export:, , Malaysia and Singapore account for nearly 50%, of the global share of exports. Indonesia accounts, for another 25% of exports. Srilanka and Thailand, are other important exporting countries. USA is the, largest buyer of global rubber and account for half, of the total imports. UK, Russia and France are other, important buyer. Today, natural rubber is facing, stiff competition from synthetic rubber., XXI. Coconut, , The plant grow well in areas of high temperature, (25°C) heavy rainfall (over 200 cm), and high humidity, along sea coasts the coconut trees grow well., Distribution:, Coconut production is concentrated within, , Chronicle IAS Academy

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Canada is the largest exporting country followed by USA, India and Argentina, UK,, Holland, Germany, France and Belgium are, importing countries., , 20° on either side of the equator. The Philippines,, Indonesia, New Guinea, Fiji, Solomon Island,, Malaysia, Srilanka, Mozambique and India are, important producing countries., •, , Sunflower:, Russia and China is the chief producer and, exporters - Germany and UK are chief importers., , CH, IA R, S, O, N, AC I, C, AD L, E, EM, Y, , Philippines produce almost 30% of the total, global output. Srilanka and Indonesia are second and third largest producer and exporter of, coconut in the world USA, Germany, Holland, and UK are chief buying nations., XXII. Oilseeds, •, , Sesame:, , India and China are main producers. China, is the largest exporting country., , Groundnut:, , India is the largest producer followed by, China, Nigeria and most Africa. India is also, the larger exporter of groundnut., , •, , •, , •, , Linseed:, , USA is the largest producer of linseed in the, world. Argentina, Canada and Russia are, other important linseed producing countries., , Soybeans:, , USA is the largest producer of Soybeans in, the world followed by China, Japan and Indonesia are other producing countries. USA, accounts for three-fourth of the total Soybeans exports. Japan is the largest buyer followed by Germany and Canada., ,


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FISHERIES, , CHRONICLE, IAS ACADEMY, , A CIVIL SERVICES CHRONICLE INITIATIVE, , CH, IA R, S, O, N, AC I, C, AD L, E, EM, Y, , The principal fishing grounds of the world, are located on the plankton rich banks of the, continental shelves especially in the cool water, of the northern hemisphere in comparatively, high latitudes. In terms of production, Japan is, para-mount followed by the CIS, China, Norway, and USA., , Locational Considerations, , (I) Supply of Plankton: Important conditions, for its presence are (a) Shallow water above, continental shelf (b) Cool Water- Plentiful, in polar water where cold & warm currents, meet. (c) Land- derived minerals which, nourishes planktons., , (II) Cool Climate: Best developed where temp., is below 20°C; tropical water is too warm, so fishes are of less commercial value while, in the temperate latitude water is cool so, most suitable; fish cannot be kept long in, hot, moist tropical conditions. While the, temperate land of cold winters originally, provides natural ice for preservation of fish., (III)Physical & Environmental Influences : Both, Atlantic and Pacific ocean coast-lines of, middle and high latitude in N-Hemisphere, are very much indented and are backed by, strong relief. There are sheltered inlets &, estuarine coasts that make ideal sites for, fishing ports & villages. The rugged, mountains & short growing period in, Norway, Hokkaido, Iceland, Alaska restricts, agricultural activities & people take to the, sea to enrich their diet. In S-Hemisphere, fishing activities are hampered by lack of, harbours or of labour. In Argentina &, Australia meat & other foodstuffs are so, plentiful that it has not been necessary to, develop a fishing industry., (IV)Moderate or Large Population: It is a labour, intensive industry, small scale fishing in wellpopulated areas as China, Japan, etc., , [100], , Types of Fish, , Salt Water Fish: They spend their entire life in, the oceans and seas., Fresh Water Fish: They are found in inland, streams, rivers and lakes., Anadromous Fish: They are spawned in the, inland rivers but spend most of their life in the, seas and only return to the rivers to spawn, and die, e.g. Salmon., Pelagic Fish: They live at or near the surface, of water like herring., Demersal Fish: They live at the bottom like, cod, haddock., 1. Pelagic: Light loving & found near the, ocean surface and form schools e.g., Herring: most important catch of N., Atlantic region & also the chief fish caught, in Japan & China., Mackerel: generally found south of the main, herring areas, e.g. in the Mediterranean Sea,, Off- South Scandinavia, Off- Cornwall (UK),, Off- Carolina (USA), Yellow sea., Sardines:temperate, water, fish;, Mediterranean sea, Bay of Biscay, Coastal, New England States are its main regions., Brisling: temperate water fish; off-south, Norway., Anchovies: temperate water fish, OffEurope, Peru (90% of Peru catch)., Menhaden: off-USA (from Newfoundland, to Caribbean Sea); due to oily nature, unsuitable for human, generally used as, animal feeding, fertilizer, soap, etc., Capelin: Like: Menhaden, caught in the, N.E-Atlantic., , 2. Demersal: not light loving, on ocean, bottom, also known as ‘White Fish’ e.g., , Chronicle IAS Academy

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Cod: in terms of value more important than, Herring; North Sea, Off- Norway &, Iceland, Grand Bank off Newfoundland., Haddock: N. Atlantic Coast., Halibut: Off- British Columbia, N.W-USA,, , land and to a little extent in its, surroundings., Leading Fishing Areas, (1) North West Pacific Region:, •, , CH, IA R, S, O, N, AC I, C, AD L, E, EM, Y, , Hake and Flat fishes like Plaice, Sole,, Flounder., , Extends form Bering Sea in the north to, Philippine sea in the south bordering, Central & Northern Japan, N. China,, Korea & NE. Russia., , Tuna: Japan, Mediterranean Sea, Indian, Ocean, California., , •, , II Fresh Water Fish (10%): They rarely swim, in large shoals & their fishing areas are, rather restricted. Inland fishing is important, in former USSR & E. Asia., , Mixing of Kuroshio Warm & Oyashio, Cold currents favours the vigorous, growth of fishes and form the greatest, fishing ground of the world., , •, , Japan leads the world in fish production, (9.2%in 1993). Other important countries, are Baltic nations, Russia, China, Korea., , Trout, Perch, Pike, Salmon: N.America &, Europe., , Sturgeon: Caspian Sea, Black sea, Volga,, Danube, Dnieper, St. Lawrence., , (2) North-East Atlantic Region:, •, , Comprising shallow waters of the, European coast extending from the Barents, Sea in the north to the Bay of Biscay., , •, , ‘Dogger Bank’ of the North Sea is the, most important fishing ground of this, region., , •, , The warm waters of North Atlantic Drift, keep the coast open, throughout the year., , •, , Major fishing countries are Norway,, Sweden, Denmark, Netherlands,, France, Iceland, UK., , •, , ‘Grimsby’ is the greatest fishing port in, the world, in variety & value of fish, landed., , •, , Cod, Herring, Halibut, Sardines form the, main catch of this region., , Carp: China & Japan., , Eels: Denmark, Netherlands, USA., , III Anadromous Fish: Both fresh water& salt, water fish., Salmon: N. America (from Alaska to, Oregon on Pacific coast)-Young salmons, live in sea but after 2-5 yrs they return to, the stream where they were born to lay, their eggs & die. Today Salmon’s greatest, haul is in Alaska., , Major Fishing Regions, , •, , •, , •, , •, , [101], , North - West Pacific Region: It extends, from Pacific Bering Sea in north to, Philippines Sea in the South. In this Region, Japan is the leading producer of fish., North-East Pacific Region : It extends from, Alaska to California along the western coast, of North America Salmon, Pilchard, Tuna,, Sardines and Halibut are the important, catch of this region., , North Atlantic Region: It extends from the, Arctic circle in the north to the borders of, the Mediterranean Sea along the West, European Coasts., North-West Atlantic Region: It extends, mainly between long island and Newfound, , (3) North West Atlantic Region:, •, , Meeting of warm Gulf Stream & Cold, Labrador favours the growth of, plankton., , •, , Cod, Perch, Herring, Haddock, Lobsters,, Oysters are the main catch of this, region., , •, , Maximum fishes are caught from the, coast of Newfoundland & Novascotia., , •, , Chesapeake Bay is famous for oyster, catches., , Chronicle IAS Academy

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•, , Halifax, St. John, Boston, New York are, important fishing ports of this region., , (4) North-East Pacific Region:, From Alaska to California along the, western coast of N. America., , It is noted for Salmon, Pilchard, Tuna, & Halibut., , The deep waters in the continental shelf offAlaska & the British Columbia are the best, Halibut fishing source of the world., , CH, IA R, S, O, N, AC I, C, AD L, E, EM, Y, , •, , •, ,


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CHRONICLE, , MINERALS, , IAS ACADEMY, , A CIVIL SERVICES CHRONICLE INITIATIVE, , Reserves:1. Former USSR, , CH, IA R, S, O, N, AC I, C, AD L, E, EM, Y, , Minerals generally occur in any of the following, formations:, , 2. India, , 1. Minerals found in sedimentary beds or, horizontal strata are mainly coal and some, grades of Iron ores. Other minerals of this, origin are gypsum, potash and salt., Petroleum also belongs to this category., , 3. USA, , 4. Brazil, , Production:1. Former USSR, 2. Brazil, , 2. Alluvial Deposits contain those minerals, which are resistant to erosion e.g. gold,, platinum and tin., 3. Some metallic minerals like tin, silver, copper,, zinc and lead are obtained from cracks,, crevices, faults or joints in rocks. The smaller, varieties of such occurrences are called, veins and the larger lodes., , 4. Deep weathering products also contain some, of the mineral resources and bauxite, the, ore of aluminium is formed by this process., , Classification of Minerals, , Industrial Metallic Mineral: Iron., , Non-Metallic Minerals: Salt, Sulphur,, Potash, Nitrates and precious stones like, Diamond., Non, Ferrous, Metallic, Aluminum, Copper, tin., , Minerals:, , Ferro-alloy Metallic Minerals: Manganese,, Vanadium, Cobalt, Molybdenum, Nickel., , 4. Australia, 5. India., , Distribution, , •, , India:, , (1)OrissaMayurbhanj,, Sundergarh, , Keonjhar,, , (2) Bihar- Singhbhum, (3) M.P.-Bailadila, , (4) Karnataka- Chikmanglur, Chitra-durg,, ·, Tumkur, Bellary, , •, , Former USSR: 40% of world reserves;, 50% is obtained from European part., , (1) Krivoyrog Region (Ukraine), , (2)KMA (Kursk-Magnetic-Anomaly) in Ukraine., (3) Kerch Peninsula, , Power Minerals: Coal, Petroleum and Gas., , (4) W-Azerbaijan., , Precious metallic minerals: Gold, Silver, and Platinum., , (5) Ural Region- Sverdlovsk (N. Ural), Nizhny, Taghil (C-Ural), Magnitogorsk (S-Ural)., , Iron Ore, , Important Ores:, , a) Magnetite (Iron content > 70%),, , b) Hematite (Iron content = 55-70%),, c) Limonite (iron content = 40-55%),, d) Siderite (iron content = 10-45%)., , [103], , 3. China, , (6) Kuzbas Region-Kustanay (Kaza-khstan)., (7) E-Siberia-Krasnoyarsk, Angara., (8) Karaganda., , (9) Kutnai (Kazakhstan), •, , USA:, , (1) Lake Superior Region: Mesabi (Limonite,, , Chronicle IAS Academy

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70% of US Production), Vermilion,, Cuyana,, Gogebic,, Menominee,, Marquette, , Britain: (1) Scunthorpe (2) Frodingham, (3) Cleveland (4) Midland (5) Scotland, , •, , Spain: (1) Bilbao (2) Santander (3), Oviedo, , •, , Germany: (1) Salzgitter (2) Siegen (3), Siegerland, , CH, IA R, S, O, N, AC I, C, AD L, E, EM, Y, , (2) NE. Region (magnetite) - Adiron-dacks, region of New York, Cornwell region of, Pennsylvania., , •, , (3) SE Region (Hematite and Limonite) Birmingham, Alabama, Red-mountain., , •, , Brazil: (1) Carajar in Para district (2), Itabira (SE-Brazil)., , (4) W. Region - Utah, Nevada, Wyo-ming,, California., , •, , Venezuela: (1) Lower Orinoco Valley,, (2) Guiana Highland - Cerro Bolivar, ElPau., , (1) Lake Superior region- Steep Rock., , •, , Chile: (1) La Sarena (2) Algarroba, , (2) Labrador & E-Quebec- Schefferville,, Wabush city., , •, , Peru: Nazca- Marcona area., , •, , Africa: Liberia (Bomi Hills, Mt. Mimba),, S.Africa, Algeria, Morocco, Tunisia,, (Iron & Steel industry is not developed, so ores are exported)., , •, , •, , Canada:, , China:, , (1) Shenyang (Mukden) region of Manchuria, (2) Yangtze Valley- Moon Shan, Tayeh,, Wuhan, (3) Shandong Peninsula, (4) Hainan Island, (5) Hunan, , Copper, , Found almost in igneous & metamorphic, rocks in the form of Native, Oxide or Sulphide., Often occurs together with gold, silver, lead,, zinc, etc., , (6) Baotao, , Ores: Cuprite, Malachite, Chalcocite, Coveite,, Pyrite., , •, , Production: 1. Former USSR, , Australia:, , (1) Pilbara Region of W.Australia: Mt., Goldsworthy, Mt. Whaleback, Mt., Bruce, Mt. Tom Price, Yampi Sound, Mt., Newmann, Tailoring Peak, Koola-nooka,, , 2. USA, , (2) S. Australian region: Iron Knob,, Karlgoorlie, Coolgardie., , 5. Zambia, , •, , France:, , (1) Lorraine (2nd important area in Europe, after KMA), (2) Normandy, (3) Pyrenees, , (4) Central Massif., , •, , Sweden: (1) Kiruna (2) Gallivare (3), Dannemore (4) Grangeberg (5), Kopparberg, , 3. Chile, , 4. Canada, , 6. Zaire, , Distribution:, , • India:, , (1) Bihar- Singhbhum, Hazaribagh, , (2) Rajasthan- Khetri, Aguncha- Rampura., , •, , USA:, , (1) Arizona-Morenci, Globe, Bisbee, CasaGrande,, (2) Utah- Bingham, (3) Montana- Butte, , [104], , Chronicle IAS Academy

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(4) Nevada, , Corundum, Kaolin,, , (5) New- Mexico, , Commercial Bauxite has 50% alumina &, 7% silica, so it is the most wan-ted ore,, mostly mined in tropical region but, aluminium is manufactured in developed, countries where cheaper electricity is, available. World’s first Bauxite mine was, in the village ‘Les-Baux’ in France from, which the ore name bauxite is derived., , (6) Michigan Lake, •, , Former USSR:, , CH, IA R, S, O, N, AC I, C, AD L, E, EM, Y, , (1) Ural Region, , (2) Kazakhstan, (3) S- Georgia, , Process: Hall-Herault Process, Bayer, Process., , (4) Armenia, , (5) Balkash Lake, , Production: 1.Australia, , (6) Norilsk, , •, , 2. Guinea, , Chile:, , 3. Jamaica, , (1) Chuquicamata (world’s largest copper, mining town), , 4. Brazil, , (2) El-Temente, , Distribution:, , (3) Poterillos, , •, , India: Bihar, MP, Maharashtra, T.N.,, Karnataka., , •, , Australia: Weipa (east of Gulf of, Carpentaria), N.E Arnhem (west of Gulf, of Carpentaria), Cape York Peninsula., , (2) Noreda (Quebec), , •, , USA: Arkansas, Georgia, Alabama, , (3) Flin- flon, , •, , Former USSR: Urals (KarsnyaShapochka, Kamansk Ural-Skiy),, Turgay., , •, , France: Brignoles (N.E of Toulon), Les, Baux, , •, , Guinea, Jamaica, Brazil, Surinam,, China, Malaysia, Indonesia, Turkey, , (4) Bradue, , •, , Canada:, , (1) Sudbury (Ontario), , (4) Sheridan, , (5) Lynn Lake (Manitoba), (6) Coppermine., , •, , Zambia: (1) Nechanga (2) Kitwe (3), Mufulira, , •, , Zaire: Lubumbashi-Katanga., , •, , Peru: (1) Morococha (2) Casapatla, , •, , Australia: (1) Mt. Isa (2) Mt. Morgan, (3) Mt. Lyell., , •, , Papua New Guinea: Bougainville, Island., , Exporters: Jamaica, Guinea, Hungary,, Surinam, Greece., , Tin, , Ores: Cassiterite or Tinstone (75% Tin), generally found in alluvial deposits, comprising 80% of world supplies, also, occurs in lodes & veins in Bolivia., 2. Indonesia, , Aluminium, , 3. Thailand, , Most abundant metal; 8% of the Earth’s crust., Ores: Bauxite (in the form of oxide),, Cryotite (found only in Greenland),, , [105], , Distribution:, •, , Malaysia: Kinta valley, Larut Plain,, , Chronicle IAS Academy

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Keylong Valley, Jelepu Valley., •, , Thailand: Kra Peninsula, Phuket, , •, , China: Yunnan (Geiju), Tauchin,, Nanling Shan, Indonesia: Bangka, Billiton, Singkep,, Mt. of Malacca., , Production:, S. Africa: Witwatersrand, Transvaal,, Johannesburg, Lydenburg, Orange Free State., USSR: Lena river placer deposit, Ural &, Trans-Baikal region., , CH, IA R, S, O, N, AC I, C, AD L, E, EM, Y, , •, , It occurs in quartz veins and as placer, deposit., , •, , Bolivia: Potosi, Oruro, , •, , Nigeria: Bauchi Plateau (Bauchi, Jos,, Jaria), , •, , Zaire: Manano, Maniemo, , Australia: Kalgoorlie, Coolgardie., , •, , Australia: Cornwall, New England., , USA: Salt Lake Region, Alaska, , •, , Myanmar: Shan, plateau, , Japan, India., , Plateau,, , Kayinni, , Canada: Flin Flon, Red Lake region, (Hollinger mine is one of the largest mine of the, world)., , Silver, , Lead, , Ores: Argentite, Galena; in lodes or veins., , Ore: Galena (Lead sulphide) Lead, Zinc &, Silver are almost found together., , Production: 1.Mexico, , 2. Peru, , Use: Storage batteries, Minium (steel, coating red point), Type-metals, Bulletmaking., Distribution:, , 4. Canada., , Distribution:, , Australia: Broken Hill, Mt. Isa, Roseberry., , Canada: British Colombia, Laurentian shield., , USA: Rockies, Ozark Plateau of Missouri,, Idaho,, Utah,, Arizona,, Colorado,, Washington., Peru: Cerro de Pasco, , Mexico: Chihuahua, Fresnillo, Taxco,, Hacienda., USA: Utah, Montana, Arizona, Colorado,, Butte., Canada: Kootenay,, Colombia, Quebec., , Ontario,, , British, , Peru: Cerro-de-Pasco., , Zinc, , Ores: Zinc-blende, Calamine, , 3. Former USSR, , (zinc, , sul-phide),, , Use: In galvanization., Distribution:, , Canada: Sullivan Valley, Canadian Shield,, N.W-Territories, British Colombia., Australia: Broken Hill, Mt. Isa., , USA: Missouri, Oklahoma, Kansas., , Bolivia: Potosi., , Australia: Mt. Isa, Kalgoorlie, Broken hills., USSR, , Platinum, , Always found with other rare metals like, Osmium, Palladium, Iridium, Rhodium., Distribution:, , Canada: Sudbury, , Colombia: San Juan region, Peru, Mexico, Japan, N. Korea, , S. Africa: Rustenburg, , Gold, , [106], , Chronicle IAS Academy

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USA: California, Former USSR: Nizhni Taghil, Ural area,, Siberia., , Distribution: Former USSR (31%): Nikopol, (Ukraine), Chaitura (Georgia), S. Africa, (Kimberley, Postmasburg) Brazil (Mines-Gerais),, Gabon (Maonda), India, , Diamond, , Mica, Ores: Muscovite (white), Phlogopite, (brown); generally found in the form of placer, deposit, , CH, IA R, S, O, N, AC I, C, AD L, E, EM, Y, , It occurs as crystals in igneous rock called, ‘Kimberlite’., ‘Carbonado’ is black diamond used in, industry, produced in Bahia, Brazil, Africa (‘Bort’, variety)., , Production: 1. India (80%), , 2. Former USSR, , Distribution, , S. Africa (leading gems stone producer),, Zaire (mainly Bort) USSR, Ghana, Namibia,, Angola, Botswana, S. Africa, Venezuela, India, (Panna)., , 3. S. Africa., , Distribution: India (Hazaribagh, Nellore),, USA, USSR, France, Argentina, South Korea., , Manganese, , Ores: Pyrolusite, Psilomelane, as nodule on, sea-floor., ,


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INDUSTRIES, , CHRONICLE, IAS ACADEMY, , A CIVIL SERVICES CHRONICLE INITIATIVE, , 3. On the basis of ownership industries can, be divided into:-, , CH, IA R, S, O, N, AC I, C, AD L, E, EM, Y, , Industry refers to an economic activity that, is concerned with production of goods, extraction of minerals or the provision of services. There, are several industries like iron and steel industry (production of goods), coal mining industry, (extraction of coal) and tourism industry (service provider). Industries can be classified on the, basis of raw materials, size and ownership., , Types of Industries, , 1. On the basis of Raw Materials they use,, industries can be divided into:-, , (a)Agro based Industries: use plant and, animal based products as their raw materials. Example - Food processing, vegetable oil, cotton textile, dairy products, and leather industries., (b)Mineral based industries: use mineral, ores as their raw materials. Example heavy machinery, building materials and, railway coaches., , (c) Marine based industries: use products, from the sea and oceans as raw materials. Example - industries processing sea, food or manufacturing fish oil., , (d)Forest based industries: Utilize forest, produce as raw materials. For example:, pulp and paper, pharmaceuticals, furniture and buildings., , 2. Size of an industry refers to the amount, of capital invested, number of people employed and the volume of production., Based on size, industries can be classified, into:(a)Small-scale Industries: Cottage or, household industries like basket weaving, pottery and other handicrafts, silk, weaving and food processing., (b)Large-scale Industries: automobiles and, heavy machinery industries., , [108], , (a)Private Sector Industries: owned and, operated by individuals or a group of, individuals e.g. Tata Motors, Reliance, Industries, Bajaj Group etc., , (b)Public Sector Industries: owned and, operated by the government. Exp Hindustan Aeronautics Limited and Steel, Authority of India Limited., (c) Joint Sector Industries: owned and operated by the state and individuals or a, group of individuals. Exp - Maruti, Udyog Limited., (d)Cooperative Sector Industries: owned, and operated by the producers or suppliers of raw materials, workers or both., Exp - Anand Milk Union Limited and, Sudha Dairy., , 4. Other Classification:, , (a)Raw Material based industries: Iron, and Steel, Sugar, Cement, Fish, Meat,, Milk and Food processing, Rayon etc., , (b)Power based industries: Aluminium., , (c) Skilled labour based industries:, Jewellery, Diamond cutting, Watch, Toys, and electronics in Japan, Jagadhari., (d)Transportation based: Trans- Siberian, Railway region industries, Industries of, Great Lake waterways region of U.S.A, and Canada, industries of coastal areas, of Japan, refineries in coastal areas, Jute, mills on the bank of river Hugli, industries of Perth. Sydney railway region of, Australia etc., (e)Capital based industries: Many industries of developing countries of colonial, period established by ruler nations during, their colonial period e.g. industries of Zaire, , Chronicle IAS Academy

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and Guinea were developed by Belgium., , USA:, It has greater concentration of iron & steel, in north-eastern part. Here three steel district, have developed:-, , (g)Footloose industries: Industries that can, be established both in the market as well, as in the raw material source region e.g., Paper industry., , (i) Pittsburg district: Pittsburg has developed, at the junction of Ohio, Allegheny and, Mononga-hela rivers. Local coal, iron-ore, from Lake Region, local lime and stone are, added advantage. Besides, Pittsburg, Youngstown and Johnstown are important, centers., , CH, IA R, S, O, N, AC I, C, AD L, E, EM, Y, , (f) Market based industries: Textile, Refineries, Electronics, Bakery, Ice-Cream, Biscuits, Hosiery and other consumer goods., , Factors Influencing Industrial Location, , The factors affecting the location of industries are:, (i) he availability of raw material,, (ii)land,, (iii), , water,, , (iv), , labour,, , (v)power,, (vi), , capital,, , (vii), , transport and, , (viii) Market., , Industries are situated where some or all of these, factors are easily available. Sometimes, the government provides incentives like subsidized power,, lower transport cost and other infrastructure so that, industries may be located in backward areas., , Major Industries Of The World, , •, , Iron and Steel Industry, , Russia:, , The major producing centres are:-, , [109], , (ii) Lake shore region: steel centers are located, at Buffalo, Erie, Cleveland, Detroit and, Loraine – Lake’s transport facility and, Mesabi are chief locational factors., , (iii) Atlantic coastal Region: Maryland,, Sparrows Point and Pennsylvania are, important centres., (b)In South-Eastern Region, Birmingham is, the largest center., (c) In Western Region, Fontana in California and Provo in Utah are important, centers., , Japan:, , (a) Honshu: Osaka-Kobe, Tokyo- Yakohama, (b) Kyushu: Yawata (50%), (c) Hokkaido: Muroran., , Japan’s iron and steel industry depends on, imports of iron ore from India, Philippines, Malaysia, Canada etc. and cooking coal from Australia and China. Now electric hearth process is, widely used to save coal., , (a)The southern districts – existence of, Krivoi Rog iron ore, Donbas coalfields,, Yeleno-vka limestone, Nikopol’s manganese and Kirch iron-ore are added advantage. Zaporozhe, Zhdanov, Toganov, are important centres., , China:, , (b)Moscow – Tula region- Tula, Vyksa,, Kulebadi and Gorki are important countries., , (b) Lower Yangtze Valley: Chungking,, Wuhan and Hankow are important centers., , (c) Ural Kuznetsk Combine: Magnitogorsk, Nizhnitaghil, Chelyabinsk and, Sverdidlo-vsk are prominent centres., , (c) Northern China: Large steel plants are located at Shantung, Beijing, Anyang and, Shensi., , (a) Manchuria region has the largest steel plant, of China is at Anshan Fushun. Pensinn and, Mukden are other important steel producing centers. The region accounts for two, fifth of China’s steel output., , Chronicle IAS Academy

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Germany:, , Japan:, Natural humid climate, cheap labour, new, and upto date machines, cheap hydel power, big, markets are important factors of growth of cotton textile industries in Japan. Majority of the, cotton mills are located in the following regions:, , CH, IA R, S, O, N, AC I, C, AD L, E, EM, Y, , Essen, Dusseldorf, Dortmouth, Bochum,, Gelsenkirchen, Duesburg and Krefeld are important centers because of the extensive deposits of, good quality coal within the region. Presence of, Ergyberg and Lahn-Sieg iron and excellent import facilities helped immensely for the rapid, growth of Ruhr- Region iron steel industry., , cheep labour and low cost of land are factors for helping the growth of industry in, this zone., , Other important Areas:, , a) France: Lorraine- Metz, Briey, Nancy and, Longway along with Sambre- Meuse field, contributes more than 90% of the national, output., , (i) Kwanto Region: around Tokyo and, Yakohama., , b) Australia: Newcastle and Port-Kembla, along the coast of New South Wales are, important steel centres., , (iii) Nagoya and, , c) Brazil: Volta Redonda is the most important center., d) Italy: Naples, Genoa, Aosta and Trieste are, important centers. These plants use scrap, iron-ore., , Export:, , Japan is the largest exporter followed by, Germany France, Belgium, Netherlands, South, Korea, Italy, USA and Taiwan. These countries, account for 80% of the International export., , •, , Cotton Textile Industry, , Location of this industry is highly diffusedperhaps due to omnipresent market of cotton, textile throughout the world., Russia:, , In Russia Ivanovo and Moscow were the most, important centres. Stalingrad, Kirorabad, and, Leningrad are other important centers. Ivanovo is, still the largest center of cotton textile in Russia., , (ii) Kinki Region: Osaka is the main center, , (iv) Northern Coastal area, other producing, centers., , China, , China is the largest producer of cotton textile in the world. The prominent centers are, Shanghai, Manchuria, Tienshan, Beijing, Chuang, Nanchang and Hankow. Shanghai is, still the largest center of cotton textile in the, country. Large market, cheap labour, local raw, material, coastal location and equitable climatic, condition are the important factors of location, of cotton textile industries in this region. Most of, the plants are integrated., U.K., , Once pioneer of modern textile industry, it, does not find place even among the ten largest, producers Manchester, Paisley, and Glasgow are, important centers., Other Centres, , India: (Mumbai, Ahmedabad, Madurai,, Coimbatore, Kota, Calcutta etc.), , USA:, , Italy: (Milan- Manchester of Italy), , Concentrated mainly is (i) North-eastern, area in the southern part of New England, states, and (ii) South East area encompassing cotton growing states of North Carolina,, South Carolina, Tennessee and Georgia., Providence, New Bedford, Fall River, Lowell,, Holyoke and Manchester are important centers. Local raw materials, favorable climatic, condition, cheap hydel power, local market,, , Spain: (Barcelona), , [110], , Production and Trade:, , China, India, Russia, USA, Japan and Italy, produce more than 70% of world total output, of cotton textile in the world. India is one of the, largest exporters of cotton textile in the world., , •, , Woolen Textile Industry, , Chronicle IAS Academy

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The bulk of the wool is produced by a handful of developed countries- Soviet Union, USA,, Japan, UK, Germany, China, France and Italy., , USA: Chicago, Philadelphia, Boston, Los, Angeles., Former USSR: Moscow, Lenin-grad and, iron and steel industries regions, UK: Birmingham., , CH, IA R, S, O, N, AC I, C, AD L, E, EM, Y, , 1) Soviet Union is the largest producer. The, leading centers are the Moscow, Tula, and, Leningrad. Ready market for the product, traditional base and abundant supply of, raw wool are the important advantages., , Important Centres:, , 2) USA: In Massachusetts, Rhode Islands,, Pennsylvania, New York, Wisconsin and, New Jersey states the woolen textile industry has developed. Favorable cool climate,, large-scale sheep rearing in northern plains,, easy and cheap labour and market facility, are the chief factors of localization., 3) Italy is a leading producer. Most of the, plants are located at Naples and Po-river, valley., •, , Jute Textile, , First jute mill was established at Dundee, (Scotland) in 1838; but now only India &, Bangladesh are significant producers., •, , Silk Textile, , West Germany: Cologne, Essen., , East Germany: Leipzig, Dresden., Italy: Eulogna, , Japan: Tokyo-Yokohama, Osaka, Kobe,, Nagoya., China: Shanghai, Canton, Harbin, Tientsin., , •, , Generally these industries are located near, coal- fields, iron-ore fields and agro- industries, like Sugar mill etc., , Important Centres: U.S.A (N.E Industrial, region), Former U.S.S.R (Moscow Leningrad),, Germany (Ruhr basin– Potash and Sulphur deposit area), France., •, , This industry is confined to tropical and subtropical regions as silkworm needs a temperature greater than16oC., Important Centres, , (a) Raw silk: (i) Japan (50%) (ii) China (iii), Former USSR (iv) India., (b) Silk Textile: (i) China (70%) (ii) Japan, , Main Problems: High labour cost and competition with synthetics., •, , Synthetic Textiles, , Main synthetic textiles are: Rayon made, from cellulose, Nylon, Acrylic and Dacron made, from coal and petroleum., Centres: USA (Southern States, Pennsylvania, New England); Japan; France., •, , Mechanical & Electrical Industries, , It is based on the availability of metal (iron, and steel, copper, aluminium etc) and technically skilled labour., , [111], , Chemical Industries, , Petrochemicals, , Those industries are generally located either, in the source region or near markets., , Important Centres: USA (Texas = 40%, Alabama), Former USSR (Volga is the largest centre), Japan (Tokyo- Yakohama), •, , Other Industries, , A. Farm Machinery: USA (Chicago-Milwaukee belt), Former USSR (Kharkov),, Canada (Winnipeg), , B. Aircraft Industry: USA (Los Angles, San, Diego, Seattle, New York, Wichita),, Former USSR (Moscow, Gorki,, Kuybyshev, Tomsk), UK, France., , C. Shipbuilding: Requires coastal location, of iron and steel industry and large, harbours. Centres: USA (East coast),, For-mer USSR (Leningrad, Vladivostok),, Japan., , D. Automobile Industry:, I. Japan, , Chronicle IAS Academy

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II. USA (Detroit: 30%), III. West Glerrary (45% of Europe), IV.Canada, Canada), , (Windsor-Detroit, , of, , CH, IA R, S, O, N, AC I, C, AD L, E, EM, Y, , V. Italy (Turin-Detroit of Italy, Milan), , a wide area from Texas to North Carolina., 20 per cent of the country’s labour force is, engaged in various industries of this region., Cotton textile, goods, aircrafts, aircraft, industry and petroleum refining are, important industries. Charlotte, Columbia,, August, Atlanta, Knoxville, Chattanooga, and Birmingham are important industrial, centers., , E. Paper: First paper industry was established in China. USA leads in production of fine paper from grasses, , News Print and Pulp: Production Ranking,, I Canada II USA III Japan., , Industrial Regions of the World, , Industrial regions emerge when a number, of industries locate close to each other and share, the benefits of their closeness. Major industrial, regions of the world are eastern North America,, western and central Europe, Eastern Europe and, eastern Asia. Major industrial regions tend to be, located in the temperate areas, near sea ports, and especially near coal fields., USA, , (a) New England Region- The region comprises, six states viz. Connecticut, Rhode Island,, Massachusetts, Vermont, New Hampshire, and Maine. The nucleus of this region is, Boston. Major industries in the region are, electrical machinery, textiles, engineering,, and other metal industries- comprises 15%, of the yearly output of the nation. Huge, capital, good communication, export, facilities, cheap and skilled labour and vast, market are the chief advantages. Major, industrial areas are Providence, Bedford,, New Haven and Springfield., , (b) North-Eastern Region- In between Lake, Superior and Baltimore on Atlantic coast,, the region covers one tenth of the area and, three-fourth of manufacturing industries, and half of the population. Pittsburgh and, Cleveland districts known for iron and steel, industries; Akron for rubber manufacturing;, New York, Philadelphia, Baltimore districtsfor textiles, steel, leather goods and chemical, industries; Detroit district (the greatest, automobile centre of the world) for, automobiles., (c) Southern Industrial Region- Extends over, , [112], , (d) Pacific coast industrial region- Extends, over the states of Washington, Oregon and, California along the Pacific coast in the, West. About 10% of the country’s labour, force is engaged in manufacturing industries, of this area. This is the smallest industrial, region of the country. Los Angeles, San, Francisco, Seattle, San Diego are important, industrial centers., , Russia, , (a) Moscow-Tula Industrial Region-Moscow,, Tula Gorky, Ivanovo and Yaroslava are the, chief industrial centres of the region. Ironsteel, heavy chemical, metallurgy, machine, tools, textiles, automobiles etc. are the chief, industries. Ivanovo is known as the, Manchester of Russia. This is the oldest and, most important industrial center of the, country., (b) Ural Industrial Region: Stretches from, Magnitogorsk to Nizhnitaghil. The, development owed much to the huge ironore deposits and good communication, system. Magnitogorsk in one of the largest, steel centres of the world. Mining, metal, engineering and chemicals are the most, important industries here. Out of eight big, industrial centres Magnitogorsk, Sverdlovsk,, Chelyabinsk, Nizhnitaghil, Orsk, Molotar,, are important., , (c) The Volga Region: The development of, manufacturing activities is a new phenomenon in this region. Tartar and Kyubushev, oil fields are helping factors for, concentration of industries here. Volgograd, is the chief centre., , Europe, (a) Ruhr Industrial Region is known as one of, the largest industrial region of Europe. The, , Chronicle IAS Academy

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(b) The Kinki Region (Osaka-Kobe-Kyoto):, Lies at the head of the Osaka Bay. Today, this area produces about 30% of country’s, pig and steel and 45% of its rolling mill, output. The four principal groups of, industries of this district are metals,, machines and tools, textiles and chemicals., Ship-building, oil-refries and aircraft, factories are also important., , CH, IA R, S, O, N, AC I, C, AD L, E, EM, Y, , large reserve of Ruhr coal and Siegerland, iron ore and transportation route through, Rhine were the major factor for, concentration of number of industries with, in an area of less than 50 miles from east, to west and 25 mills from north to south., There are more than dozen of industrial, cities with population varying from one, lakh to five lakhs. Local large coal deposit,, in land waterways, local skill are major, factor for industrial conglomerations., , (b) Po valley of North Italy: Textile industries, including cotton, rayon and woolen are the, most important industries of this plain., Cotton textiles rank high in Italy’s export, trade. Turin, Lombardy, Pia Cenza, Emilia,, Bologna and Ravena are major industrial, cultures., , Japan, , (a) Tokyo-Yokohama (Kwanto Plain): This, region accounts for 30% of nation industrial, output. Local hydel power, excellent rail, connections and abundant supply of labour, are the other favorable factors. Tokyo,, Yakohama and Kawasaki are important, centres., , (c) The North-Kyushu Region: The region, covers large tracts of Hiroshima, Yamaguci,, Okayama and Kitakyushu. The major, centers of production in this region are, Tokuyama, Kokura, Yawata and Wakamatsu., China, , (a) Manchuria Industrial Region: The factors, those were responsible for the growth of, this region is agricultural hinterland, good, transportation network, skilled labour, local, capital and Japanese participation. Iron and, steel, machines building, heavy engineering, industries were set up in Mukden, Harbin,, Fushun and Darten., , Major Industrial Centres, , Country, , Major Industrial Centers, , Industries, , Britain, , Birmingham, , Iron & Steel, Heavy Machinery, , (Midland is the, , Coventry, , Automobile, , largest Industrial, , Burton-on-Trent, , Brewing (largest brewery town of, , region centered, , at Birmingham), , Britain), , Stoke-on-Trent, , Pottery (Pottery capital of Britain), , New Castle, , Shipbuilding, , Middlesborough, , Iron & Steel, , Bradford & Halifax, , Worsted textile, , Leeds, , Garments, , Shefield (World’s largest, , Cutlery and Iron & Steel, , cutlery town), , Manchester (Lancashire region), , Cotton textile, , Liverpool & Birkenhead, , Shipbuilding, , Along Manchester Canal, , Heavy chemicals, , Glasgow, , Hamilton, , Iron & Steel, , Motherwell, Coatbridge, , [113], , Chronicle IAS Academy

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Shipbuilding, , Belfast region (Main industrial, , Shipbuilding &, , region of Ireland), , Linen industry, , Lille, , Textiles, , Dunkirus, , Iron & Steel, , St. Etienne, , Armaments & Bicycle, , Limoges, , Pottery, , Lyon, , Silk making, , Marseilles, , Oil refineries, , Paris Champaque, , Aircraft & Transport Wine, , Lorrensar, , Iron & Steel, , Germany, , Frankfurt, , Railway engineering, , (Ruhr-Westphalia, , Mainz, , Leather, Brewing, Engineering, , region, served by, , Mannheim, , Chemical, electrical engineering,, , Rhine River, is the, , Ludwigshafen, , Iron & Steel., , region of Germany, , Hamburg, , Shipbuilding, , This industrial, , Munich, , Photographic equipment, Musical, , CH, IA R, S, O, N, AC I, C, AD L, E, EM, Y, , France, , Pot Glasgow, , largest industrial, , region is connected, to North sea by, , instrument, , Stuttgart, , Dortmund-Ems Canal) Aachen, , Automobile, , Iron & Steel, Textile, , Leipzig, , Optical instrument Jena, , Dresden, , Zeiss Photographic equipment, Porcelain, , Karl Marx Stadt, , Textiles, , Liege, Diamond cutting, , Iron & Steel, Guns, pistols & other firearms., , Ghent, , Linen textiles, , Luxemberg, , Luxemberg city, , Engineering, , Netherland, Amsterdam, , Rotterdam, Diamond cutting, , Shipbuilding & marine engineering, , Arnhem, , Tin smelting, , Goteborg, , Shipbuilding, , Stock- holm, , Shipbuilding, , Zurich, , Engineering & Textiles, , Basel & Baden, , Engineering, , Denmark, , Copenhagen, , Dairy, , Italy, , Milan (main industrial region), , Silk textile, , Turin (Detroit of Italy), , Motor Car, , U.S.A., , Boston, , Shipbuilding, , (Great Lake region is, , Pittsburg (Iron & Steel, , Iron & Steel, , the most important, , capital of the world), , Belgium, Antwerp, , Sweden, , Switzerland, , [114], , Chronicle IAS Academy

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Industrial region), , Akron, tyre making center, , World’s largest synthetic rubber &, , Detroit, , Motor car & Aeroplane, , Pontiac, , Cars & its spare parts, , Flint, Iron & Steel, , CH, IA R, S, O, N, AC I, C, AD L, E, EM, Y, , Gary, Chicago, , Canada, , Toledo, , Automobile, , Birmingham, , Iron & Steel, , Troy, , Garment, , Buffalo, , Iron Steel and Machinery (Also the largest, Flour milling center of U.S.A), , San Francisco (Silicon Valley), Los Ange- les (Hollywood), , Oil refining, Shipbuilding, Computer technology, , Montreal, , Shipbuilding & Aircraft, , Toronto, , Engineering & Automobile, , Ottawa, , Paper, , Hamilton (Birmingham, , Iron & Steel and Engineering, , Film & Aircrafts, , of Canada), Quebec, , Shipbuilding & Marine engineering, , Moscow & Gorky, , Iron & Steel, Chemicals, , Magnitogorsk, , Iron & Steel & Oil refining, , Leningrad (St. Petersburg), , Textile, Chemical, Paper, , Ukraine, , Krivoyrog, , Iron & Steel and Heavy Machinery, , Argentina, , Buenos Aires, , Shipbuilding, , China, , Shanghai, , Textile and Machinery, , Wuhan, , Textile, Machinery, Shipbuilding Iron & Steel, , Nagoya (Detroit of Japan), , Aircraft, Car, Machinery, , Osaka (Manchester of Japan), , Shipbuil-ding, Textile, Iron & Steel, , Kyoto & Kobe, , Shipbuilding, Textile, Iron & Steel,, , Tokyo, , Shipbuilding, Engineering, and Textile, , Russia, , Japan, , Nagasaki, , Shipbuilding, Iron & Steel, Machinery, , Points to Remember, , 1. Japan is the leading, shipbuilding industry., , producer, , of, , 2. Some of the important automobile industry, of the world are; Volkswagen and, Mercedes in Germany, British Leyland in, the U.K., Ford and Chrysler and General, Motors of the U.S.A, Toyota and Mazda of, Japan., 3. The United States is the world's largest, locomotive producer; the prominent, , [115], , industrial units are centered at Detroit,, Chicago, New York and Philadelphia., , 4. The U.S.A. is the largest producer of, planes; the other countries in the, descending order are; U.S.S.R, U.K,, France, Canada, Italy, Australia and, Japan., 5. The chief producers of chemical industry, are, U.S.A, West Germany, U.K and Japan., 6. The main petrochemical manufacturing, countries are the" U.S.A" , The European, , Chronicle IAS Academy

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countries, West Germany, Netherlands,, Spain and Britain., , 16. Canada's main industrial region stretches, from Lake Peninsula to Montreal., , 7. Flour milling and meat packing are the, important industries of Chicago, Kansa, City, Omaha and Mid - West of the U.SA., , 17. World's largest refinery is located at, "Sarnia", on the Huron shore., 18. The Moscow -Gorki Region is the oldest, and the greatest of Soviet industrial region, which includes the towns like Moscow,, Gorki, Tula and Ivanova., , CH, IA R, S, O, N, AC I, C, AD L, E, EM, Y, , 8. The "Ruhr-Westphalia" region of Germany, is the largest industrial region., 9. Leipzig is famous for optical instrument, and Jena for Zeiss photographic equipment, ., , 10. The leading industries in Norway are, marine engineering, shipbuilding, fish, catching and the pulp and paper industries., , 11. The leading industries of Denmark is, centered at "Copenhagen" in "Zealand"; it, is known for "dairying and agricultural", industries., 12. Switzerland is highly industrialized and, known for watch-making, engineering,, chemical and textile industries., , 13. The "Lombardy plain" of Italy is the largest, industrial region and contain major, industrial cities of Milan, Turin, Genoa., , 14. In New England, Boston is known for, shipbuilding and shoe-making industry., 15. "Pittsburg" of the U.S.A is the "iron and, steel capital" of the World., , 19. The industrial region of Ukraine is chiefly, based on the rich Donetz or Donbas, Coalfield and the "Krivoi Rog - Kerch" iron, field., 20. Some of the important industrial regions of, Japan are: "Keihin region", Tokyo (noted, for electrical engineering), Yokohama &, (precision engineering, shipbuilding, oil, refining), Kawasaki (marine engineering),, Hansin region; Osaka (textile town), Kobe, (shipbuilding), Kyoto (craft); Bay region;, Muroran (Iron steel,), Hiroshima (shipbuilding) etc., 21. "Keylong Valley" of Malaysia is the main, industrial region., 22. In Australia, the Coalfield of Sydney, iron, and steel industry of New Castle and port, Kembla, shipbuilding, chemical, air craft, industries of Melbourne; agricultural, industries of Adelaide, Locomotive of, Brisbane are known, ,


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CHRONICLE, , ENERGY, RESOURCES, , A CIVIL SERVICES CHRONICLE INITIATIVE, , •, , Peat:, , CH, IA R, S, O, N, AC I, C, AD L, E, EM, Y, , Most of the world's energy resources are, from the sun's rays hitting earth. Some of that, energy has been preserved as fossil energy; some, is directly or indirectly useable; for example, via, wind, hydro- or wave power., , IAS ACADEMY, , Coal, , Coal is the most abundant fossil fuel found in, sedimentary source most of which has been formed, during Carboniferous period. This was the fuel that, launched the industrial revolution and has continued to grow in use; China, which already has many, of the world's most polluted cities, is building about, two coal-fired power plants every week. Coal is the, fastest growing fossil fuel and its large reserves, would make it a popular candidate to meet the energy demand of the global community, short of global warming concerns and other pollutants., Types of Coal:, , •, , Anthracite:, , 1. Carbon content - 90%, gives off little smoke, and leaves little ash after being burnt., 2. Very hard, shiny and free of impurities but, has very little reserves (57% of total coal), , 3. Important reserves are in USA (Pennsylvania, 50%), former USSR (Donetz basin),, Germany, U.K and Vietnam, •, , Bituminous:, , 1. Carbon content - 70-90% gives smoky flame, and leaves behind much ash., 2. Black & Shiny and gives tar (bitumen), when heated. It is found in abundance, (80% of total coal), •, , Lignite (Brown Coal):, , 1. Carbon content - 45-70% burns with high, smoky flames., , 2. It is of much more recent origin & therefore contains higher proportion of humus., , [117], , 1. Represents first stage in the formation of, coal from vegetation., , 2. Having high humidity content & therefore, have no industrial value., Distribution:, , Important areas famous for mining Donetsk, basin (Ukraine), Kuznetsk basin (Russia),, Karaganda (Kazakhstan) and Kansu-Achinsk, basin (S. Siberia) are important and plays a very, crucial role in the world economy., 1. China:, , Datong (Shansi province), Ho-lin-Ho (Inner, Mongolia), Huainan & Huaibei, Yan Zhon, (Shantung Peninsula) Pindingshan (Henan), and Kailnan (Hegei Province)., , 2. USA:, , The coal mining area of USA lies in the eastern, part. The Appalachian coal region extends from, northwestern Pennsylvania to Alabama. Kentucky and Western Virginia are the major coal, producing states in this region. Illinois, Utah,, Wyoming, Colorado, Washington, Arizona and, New Mexico are other important states., , 3. Europe:, , Main belt extends from N.E. France to Poland having Franco-Belgian Coalfields,, Campine-Limburg Coalfields, Ruhr, Saar,, Silesia, Saxony and Pilsen., , 4. Australia:, , Most of the coalmines lie in New South, Wales. Some coal is mined in Queensland, and Western Australia., , 5. Africa:, , South Africa is most important country,, where important coal mines are located in, Transvaal, Natal and Orange-Free state., , Chronicle IAS Academy

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6. India:, W.Bengal, Orissa, Bihar, M.P, Maharashtra., Mineral Oil, , CH, IA R, S, O, N, AC I, C, AD L, E, EM, Y, , It is obtained from those decomposed tiny, marine creatures, minute plants and animals,, which were buried under the sediments about, 10 to 20 crores years ago. It is generally found in, dome like structures of sedimentary rocks but, all sedimentary rocks may not have mineral oil., , The world's largest gas field is Qatar's offshore North Field, estimated to have 25 trillion, cubic metres of gas in place—enough to last more, than 200 years at optimum production levels., The second largest natural gas field is the South, Pars Gas Field in Iranian waters in the Persian, Gulf. Generally natural gas occurs together with, mineral oil in the anticlines of sedimentary rocks., , Global distribution:, , USA: Appalachian Mt. Region (Oil was first, drilled in Pennsylvania), Texas, Oklahoma,, Kansas, California, Louisiana and Wyoming., Alaska region have enormous reserves of, both oil & gas but production in expensive, due to cold climate and lack of transportation. Most of the refineries of USA are located in N.E. USA due to high demand., , Former USSR: Volga-Ural region (75% of, total production), Caucasus region (20% of, total production) Mykope, Baku and Grozny, of Georgia, Armenia and Azerbaijan), Western Siberia., West Asia: Southern Arabia (Dahran,, Ghawar), Kuwait (Burgan), Iran (Gachasaran,, Masjid-e-Sulaiman), Iraq (Kirkuk, Mosul,, Zubair, Rumeilla). Abadan (Iran) is the biggest refinery of West Asia. Basra is the most, important refining centre of Iraq., South East Asia: Indonesia (central, Sumatra, Java & Kalimantan), Myanmar, (Irrawady & Chindwin basin), Brunei., Natural Gas, , Natural gas primarily consists of methane. It is, found associated with fossil fuels, in coal beds, as, methane clathrates, and is created by methanogenic, organisms in marshes, bogs, and landfills. It is an, important fuel source, a major feedstock for fertilizers, and a potent greenhouse gas., , The world's largest proven gas reserves are, located in Russia. Russia is also the world's largest natural gas producer, through the Gazprom, Company. Major proven resources are Russia,, Iran, Qatar, Saudi Arabia and United Arab, Emirates., , [118], , Distribution:, , USA: Mid-Continental areas have largest, reserves (Texas, Louisiana, Oklahoma, Kansas), Rocky Mountains, New Mexico, California., Former U.S.S.R: Western Siberia (Uregny, has world’s largest known reserves), North, Caucasus., Canada: Alberta, British Colombia, , Others: North Sea, Netherland, China., , (Europe),, , U.K,, , Nuclear Energy, , Nuclear power is power produced from controlled nuclear reactions. Commercial plants in, use to date use nuclear fission reactions. Electric, utility reactors heat water to produce steam,, which is then used to generate electricity. 14%, of the world's electricity came from nuclear, power, despite concerns about safety and radioactive waste management., Nuclear fusion reactions are widely believed, to be safer than fission and appear potentially, viable, though technically quite difficult. Fusion, power has been under intense theoretical and, experimental investigation for many years., Both fission and fusion appear promising for, some space propulsion applications in the midto distant-future, using low thrust for long durations to achieve high mission velocities., On June 27, 1954, the USSR's Obninsk, Nuclear Power Plant became the world's first, nuclear power plant to generate electricity, and, produced around 5 megawatts of electric power., The world's first commercial nuclear power, station, Calder Hall in Sellafield, England was, opened in 1956 with an initial capacity of 50 MW, (later 200 MW). The first commercial nuclear, , Chronicle IAS Academy

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generator to become operational in the United, States was the Shipping port Reactor., , CH, IA R, S, O, N, AC I, C, AD L, E, EM, Y, , Many countries remain active in developing nuclear power, including China, India, Japan and Pakistan, all actively developing both fast and thermal technology,, South Korea and the United States, developing thermal technology only, and South, Africa and China, developing versions of the, Pebble Bed Modular Reactor (PBMR). Several EU member states actively pursue, nuclear programs, while some other member states continue to have a ban for the, nuclear energy use., , through use of the gravitational force of falling, or flowing water. It is the most widely used form, of renewable energy. Once a hydroelectric complex is constructed, the project produces no direct waste, and has a considerably lower output, level of the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide (CO2), than fossil fuel powered energy plants. Worldwide, an installed capacity of 777 GWe (Giga, watt - Electric) supplied 2998 TWh (tera watt, hours) of hydroelectricity in 2006. This was, around 20% of the world's electricity and about, 88% of electricity from renewable sources., , Uranium and thorium are major sources, which are radioactive minerals having immense, capacity to generate energy through nuclear fission., 1. Uranium:, , Two primary ores of Uranium; Pitchblende, (Uranium content 50 to 80%) and Uraninite, (Uranium content 65 to 80%), Distribution:, , Canada: Uranium city (on northern bank of, lake Athabasca), Port Radium (Lake Great Bear)., •, , USA: Colorado plateau has rich deposits., , •, , South Africa (Witwatersrand),, , •, , Australia (Mary-Kathleen),, , •, , Europe (Central Massif), and, , •, , Japan (Tobo), , 2. Thorium:, , Important Ores: (i) Monazite (ii) Thorianite, (iii) Allnite, Distribution:, , Monazite: Malabar Coast of Kerala & T.N., (India), Brazil, Australia, Malaysia, and USA,, Srilanka., Thorianite: Sri Lanka (Ratnapur dist.), , Allnite: Rajasthan & Andhra Pradesh (In-, , dia), , Hydel Energy, Hydroelectricity is electricity generated by, hydropower, i.e., the production of power, , [119], , Distribution:, , In the Scottish Highlands of United Kingdom,, there are examples at Kinlochleven and Lochaber,, constructed during the early years of the 20th, century. The Grand Coulee Dam, switched to, support Alcoa aluminum in Bellingham, Washington, United States for irrigation and power (in, addition to aluminum power)., , In Surinam, the Brokopondo Reservoir was, constructed to provide electricity for the Alcoa, aluminium industry. New Zealand's Manapouri, Power Station was constructed to supply electricity to the aluminium smelter at Tiwai Point., As of 2007 the Kárahnjúkar Hydropower Project, in Iceland remains controversial., Failure Hazard:, , Dam failures have been some of the largest, man-made disasters. Also, good design and construction are not an adequate guarantee of safety., , For example, the Banqiao Dam failure in, Southern China resulted in the deaths of 171,000, people and left millions homeless. Also, the creation of a dam in a geologically inappropriate, location may cause disasters like that of Vajont, Dam in Italy, where 2000 people died in 1963., , Smaller dams and micro hydro facilities create less risk, but can form continuing hazards, even after they have been decommissioned. For, example, the Kelly Barnes small hydroelectric, dam failed in 1967, causing deaths with the, Toccoa Flood, ten years after its power plant was, decommissioned in 1957., Famous Hydel Projects of the world:, USA: Colorado River – (i) Davis (ii) Parker (iii), Boulder (Hoover) dams., , Chronicle IAS Academy

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Colombia River – (i) Grand Coolie dam (ii), Bonneville dam, Tennessee River – (i) Wheeler (ii) Wilson, (iii) Norris (iv) Chickamauga Dam., Mississippi River – (i) St. Anthony fall project., , Ghana (Africa) – Volta River – Akosombo, dam, Egypt – Nile River – Aswan dam., Uganda – Owen Falls project, , CH, IA R, S, O, N, AC I, C, AD L, E, EM, Y, , Sacramento River (California) – Shasta dam., , Parana River – Itiapu Project., , Africa: Zambezi River – Victoria Falls – Shasta, dam., , China: Huangnihe River – Lubuge Project., , Three go rges Dam of china is the largest, hydel power project in the world., , Sudan – Nile River – Senar dam., , Zaire or Congo River – Stanley dam, , Country, , Annual Hydroelectricity“, , Installed“, , Percent of“, , Production (TWh), , Capacity (GWe), , total electricity, , China, , 585.2, , 171.52, , 17.18, , Canada, , 369.5, , 88.974, , 61.12, , Brazil, , 363.8, , 69.080, , 85.56, , United States, , 250.6, , 79.511, , 5.74, , Russia, , 167.0, , 45.000, , 17.64, , Norway, , 140.5, , 27.528, , 98.25, , India, , 115.6, , 33.600, , 15.80, , Sweden has maximum energy from oil but, also has the largest share of her energy of HEP, in the world. Netherlands has maximum energy, from natural gas. 80% of oil & 90% of coal is, found north of 20° n latitude while 80% of hydel, power energy potential is south of 20° n latitude., Solar Energy, , It is common knowledge that solar radiation, is unevenly distributed, and that it varies in intensity from one geographic location to another depending upon the latitude, season, and time of day., Until recently, valid records for solar radiation have, been very scanty in the vast majority of the developing countries. In the absence of such useful information as a guide for the proper exploitation of, solar energy, only general hints can be offered regarding the geographic areas with favourable conditions for solar energy applications., For convenience and simplicity, the geographic distribution of total solar radiation on a, global scale is divided in terms of intensity into, four broad belts around the earth. These are il-, , [120], , lustrated in Figure 2, and also described briefly, hereunder with respect to the northern hemisphere, with the understanding that the same, conditions apply to the corresponding belts in, the southern hemisphere:, (I) Most Favourable belt, , This belt, lying between latitudes 15°N, and, 35°N, embraces the regions that are naturally, endowed with the most favourable conditions, for solar energy applications. These semi-arid, regions are characterized by having the greatest, amount of solar radiation, more than 90% of, which comes as direct radiation because of the, limited cloud coverage and rainfall (less than 250, mm per year)., (II) Moderately Favourable belt, , This belt lies between the equator and latitude 15°N, and is the next most favourable region for the purpose previously mentioned. Because the humidity is high, and cloud cover is, frequent, the proportion of scattered radiation, is quite high. There is a total of about 2,500 hours, , Chronicle IAS Academy

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of sunshine per year. The solar intensity is almost uniform throughout the year as the seasonal variations are only slight., (III) Less Favourable belt, , The regions in this belt lie beyond latitude, 45°N. They include the USSR, and the greater, parts of northern Europe and North America., Here, about half of the total radiation is diffuse radiation, with a higher proportion in, winter than in summer primarily because of, the rather frequent and extensive cloud coverage., , CH, IA R, S, O, N, AC I, C, AD L, E, EM, Y, , This belt lies between latitude 35°N and, 45°N. Although the average solar intensity is, roughly about the same as for the other two belts,, there are marked seasonal variations in both radiation intensity and daylight hours. During the, winter months solar radiation is relatively lower, than in the rest of the year., , (IV)Least Favourable belt, ,


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CHRONICLE, , TRANSPORT, , IAS ACADEMY, , A CIVIL SERVICES CHRONICLE INITIATIVE, , (h) Cape Cairo railway- It runs from Cape, Town to Cairo in Egypt., , CH, IA R, S, O, N, AC I, C, AD L, E, EM, Y, , Transportation means movement of goods, and passengers from one place to another. It, plays a vital role in production and distribution, and hence is called the life blood of commerce., The means of transport are grouped under, three heads (i) land transport (ii) water transport (iii) air transport., Land Transport, , 1. Road Transport, , They are the most universal form of transport. It was only in the eighteenth century that, roads were systematically built and surfaced., Highways have been constructed to facilitate, speedy transportation of goods and passengers., The Pan-American Highway, Brasilia - Belem, road etc are some of the important highways., U.S.A has the largest length of roadways and also, the largest number of automobiles., 2. Railway, , The first railway was opened between Stockton and Darlington in England in 1825. The main, railway routes of the world are as under:, (a) Northern trans-continental railway- It runs, from Seattle to New York in U.S.A., , (b) Central transcontinental railway- It runs, from San Francisco to New York., (c) Southern transcontinental railway- It runs, from Los Angeles to New York., (d) Canadian- Pacific railway- It runs from, Halifax to Vancouver in Canada., (e) Canadian national railway - It runs from, Saint John to Vancouver., , (f) Trans-Siberian railway - It is the longest, rail route of the world and runs from, Leningrad to Vladivostok., (g) Trans Caucasian railway- It runs from, Batum to Kursk., , [122], , (i) Orient Express railway- It runs from Paris, to Constantinople in Turkey., (j) Trans-Andean railway- It runs from, Valparaiso in Chile to Buenos Aires in Argentina., (k) Australian transcontinental railway- It runs, from Perth to Sydney in Australia., Trans Continental Railways Routes, , The Iran Siberian Railway: It connects, Leningrad and Moscow in the west to Vladivostok, in the East. Length of this route is 5600 miles., The Canadian Pacific Route: It Connects, Halifax (East of Canada to Vancouver in west, the length of 7500 kms. The route has been connected to Lake Superior via Winnipeg., The Australian Transcontinental Railway:, It run from Fremantle (Perth) to Sydney via, Kalgoorlie, Adelaide, Canberra and Melbourne., 3. Pipelines, , Pipelines are becoming an increasingly important form of transport. They generally transport petroleum and natural gas. The most famous pipeline in U.S.A is the ‘big inch pipeline’, which transports oil from Gulf of Mexico to the, north-eastern parts. The longest pipeline of the, world is called ‘Tapeline’., Water Transport, , Water transport can be divided into: (i) inland waterways and (ii) Ocean transport., Inland Waterways, , Inland waterways consist mainly of navigable rivers and canals. The largest rivers of the, world like Amazon, Yangtze Kiang, Mississippi’, Rhine, Volga, St Lawrence etc are navigable., , Chronicle IAS Academy

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Ocean Transport, The main oceanic routes of the world are:, , Important Canals of World, Canal, , link, , CH, IA R, S, O, N, AC I, C, AD L, E, EM, Y, , 1. North Atlantic route: It is the busiest trade, route of the world and connects ports of, Western Europe with ports on the eastern, coast of North America., , The Cape of Good Hope Route: It connects, Western African Countries, South Africa, Australia and New Zealand., , Suez Canal, , Mediterranean Sea and, Red sea, , Panama Canal, , Pacific Ocean and, Atlantic Ocean, , Kiel Canal, , North Sea and Baltic Sea, , 4. The cape route: It connects the western, and southern sections of Africa with western Europe., , Soo canal, , Lake Superior and Lake, Huron, , Manchester canal, , Manchester and isthmus., , 5. South Atlantic route: It links Europe with, the Caribbean islands and the eastern countries of south America., , North Sea canal, , North Sea and Amsterdam, , 6. The pacific route: It connects the western, seaboard of North America with eastern, part of Asia., , Stalin canal, , Rostor and Stalingrad, , Gota Canal, , Stockholm and Guttenberg, , Mitteland canal, , Ems, Weser and Elbe rivers, , 2. The panama route: It connects the ports of, the pacific with the ports in the Atlantic ocean., , 3. The Mediterranean:Suez-Asiatic route. It, connects the western European countries, with the Asian countries., , New waterway canal North Sea and Rotterdam, , Important Waterways and Sea Routes, , Dortmund-Ems canal Rhine and Bremen, , The Mediterranean or Suez- Asiatic Route:, Considered as the line of Britain, this route connects East Africa, South West Asia, Far East via, Mediterranean Sea and Arabian Sea., , Ludwig canal, , The Panama Canal or West Indies: Central American Route: Considered as the Gateway to the Pacific, this route has facilitated, trade in the West Indies islands and the pacific, states of North, Central and South America, especially the Andean States Panama and Colon are the ports on two sides., , Air routes can be broadly classified into (i), Intercontinental (ii) Continental (iii) National and, (iv) Regional air routes., , The South Atlantic Route: It connects European countries with Brazil, Argentina and, Uruguay., The North Pacific Oceanic Route: Western, coast towns of United States are connected with, Tokyo, Kohima etc., , The South Pacific Oceanic Route: Australia, New Zealand, North America and Western, Europe are connected., , The North Atlantic Route: It connect Eastern coast of United States to Western Europe and, is one of the busiest routes of the world., , [123], , Main and Rhine rivers, , Air Transport, , U.S.A has the largest number of Airports., London’s Heathrow airport is the busiest airport, in the world. The main national airways include, British airway, Lufthansa (Germany), KLM, (Dutch), Air Italia, Air France, SAS (Norway,, Sweden, Denmark), Qantas (Australia),, Aeroflot (Russia), Japan airlines and United airlines, TWA, Pan-American airlines (all USA) etc., Points To Remember, , 1. “Autobahn”, a 3,200 km long highway of, Germany was built by Hitler, , 2. The first public railways was opened between Stockholm and Darlington in northern England in 1825., , Chronicle IAS Academy

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3. The greatest railways densities are found in, the industrial region of the “Western Europe”, in which “Belgium” has the greatest density., , 11. The “Saint Lawrence Waterways” of North, America is the most important; it is ice bound for three to four months in a year., , CH, IA R, S, O, N, AC I, C, AD L, E, EM, Y, , 4. The Trans - Siberian railway of Asia, runs, from Leningrad to Moscow, is the most, important east - west link. It has the connecting links with Odessa in Ukraine, Baku, in the Caucasus, Tashkent in Russia, Ulan, Bator in Mongolia, Shenyang in Manchuria and Beijing in China., , 10. The Ludwig Canal of Germany links the, Rhine to the Danube and allows water born, traffic from Black sea to the Mediterranean, Sea through the Rhone-Rhine canal., , 5. “India” has the densest railway network in Asia., , 6. It is possible to travel entirely by river and, canals from the Mediterranean sea to the, English channel or from Rhine to the Atlantic ocean., , 12. The Mediterranean Suez - Asiatic route, which links Europe with the far east is, considered as the life - line of Britain because oil supplies from middle - east and, tropical raw materials and food stuff from, the Asiatic colonies comes through the Suez., , 7. The “Mitteland Canal” joins the three, major rivers of Ems, Weser and Elbe, , 13. The “Panama Canal” which came into, existence in 1913 is the gateway to the, Pacific. It has facilitated the trade in the, West Indian islands and the Pacific states, of North, Central and South America., , 8. The “Kiel Canal” links the Elbe estuary to, the Baltic Sea., , 14. The first regular air service was started in, 1919 between London and Paris., , 9. Dortmund -Ems canal runs north-south and, links the Rhine with ports of Bremen and, Emden., , 15. The “Commonwealth Air Route” passes, through London, Rome, Kuwait, Bahrain,, Karachi, Bombay, Colombo, Kuala Lumpur, and Singapore., ,


, , [124], , Chronicle IAS Academy

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GEOGRAPHY SAMPLE, QUESTIONS, 1. Match the following:, A. Onges, 1. Little Nicobar, B. Jarawas, , 2. Middle & South Andaman, , C. Santineles, , 3. Sentinel Island, , D. Shompen, , 4. Great Nicobar, , Codes:, (a) A-1, B-2, C-3, D-4, , (d) More budgetary allocations and increased, emphasis over self sufficiency in grain production., 5. Which one of the following is correct?, (a) Nathu La pass lies in the Chumbi Valley., (b) Shipki La lies in the Indus Valley., , (b) A-4, B-3, C-2, D-1, , (c) The alluvial Plain between the Yamuna at, Delhi and the Bay of Bengal has a drop of, only 100 metres in elevation., , (c) A-1, B-4, C-3, D-2, (d) A-1, B-2, C-4, D-3, 2. Concerning the development of Govt. of India,, in introducing Railway line in the tough regions of strategic importance, which of these, statements are not true?, 1. A rail line from Baramulla to Anantnag is, the Kashmir valley has started working., 2. There is a plan of rail line from valley to, Jammu through Banihal pass., 3. The rail lines through Banihal pass have, the longest rail tunnel of India., (a) All, , (b) Only 1, , (c), , (d) None, , Only 2, , tural inputs., , 3. Which of the following statements is NOT CORRECT?, (a) Krishna Ganga is tributary of River Jhelum., (b) Pong reservoir is on river Beas., , (d) The Cardamom hills lying in the South are, the continuation of the Eastern Ghats., 6. According to National Disaster Management, Authority, the critical areas of concern for the, management of earthquakes in India include, the:, 1. inadequate attention to structural mitigation measures in the engineering education, syllabus;, 2. absence of systems of licensing of engineers;, 3. absence of earthquake-resistant features in, non-engineered construction in suburban, and rural areas;, 4. lack of formal training among professionals in earthquake-resistant construction, practices, (a) 1, 2 and 3., , (b) 1 and 3., , (c) 1, 3 and 4., , (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4., , (c) Ukai reservoir is on river Narmada., (d) Wular Lake is an Oxbow lake on river, Jhelum., 4. The Second Green Revolution is urgently needed, in India, and it is to be brought about by:, (a) More technology, hybrids, genetically modified crops and more intensive irrigation., , 7. Match the following soil horizons with their, defining characteristics:, Soil Horizon, Characteristic, A. Horizon B, 1. Illuviated horizon or the, zone of accumulation, B. Horizon C, 2. Parent rock, C. Horizon O, 3. Surface litter, , (b) Natural farming, organic fertilizers, indigenous crops including pulses and coarse, cereals., , D. Horizon E, , (c) More credit outflow to the farmers and, techno-functional awareness among the, farmers regarding their land and agricul-, , Codes:, A, (a) 1, , GeographyIAS Academy, ©Chronicle, , B, 2, , 4. Eluviated horizon or the, zone of leaching, 5. Topsoil, C, 3, , D, 4, 1

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(b) 1, (c) 5, (d) 5, , 2, 4, 4, , 5, 1, 1, , 12. Consider the following statements, 1. The upper crust of the earth called SiAl, has an average density of 3.0, , 4, 2, 2, , 8. Which of the following statements regarding, El-Nino are correct?, A. El-Nino is a complex weather system that, appears once every three to seven years., , Which is/are incorrect?, (a) 1 only, (b) 2 only, , CH, IA R, S ON, AC I, C, AD L, E, EM, Y, , B. The system involves oceanic and atmospheric phenomena with the appearance, of cold currents off the coast of Peru., , 2. The lower part called SiMa has an average, density of 4.0, , C. The word El-Nino means 'Child Christ', because this current appears around Christmas in December and decreases the intensity of the ongoing winter season., , D. El-Nino in India is used for forecasting long, range monsoon rainfall., , Codes:, (a) A, B and D, (c) B, C and D, , (d) A and D, , 9. Read the following characteristics of a part of, atmosphere and recognize the region:, 1. It extends up to a height of 80 km., , 2. In this layer, temperature decreases with, the increase in altitude., 3. Temperature reaches up to minus 100°C at, the height of 80 km., , Codes:, (a) Troposphere, , (b) Stratosphere, , (d) Ionosphere, , 10. South Sudan shares boundary with which of, the following country., (a) Eritrea, (b) Chad, (d) Kenya, , 11. Which one of the following refers to the process of a city expanding and accommodating, the neighbouring villages and communities?, (a) Urbanization, (c) Sub-urbanisation, , 13. Read the following statements:, 1. There is so much difference in the length of, degrees of longitudes outside the tropics, that they are not used for calculating distances as in the case of latitudes., , 2. Places east of Greenwich see the sun earlier and gain time w.r.t. Prime Meridian,, whereas places west of Greenwich see the, sun later and lose time., , 4. A traveller crossing the date line from east, to west loses a day., , Which of the above statements are true?, (a) 1, 2 and 3., (b) 1, 2 and 4., (c) 2, 3 and 4., , (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4., , 14. Identify the crop by reading the following statements:, I. It is a tropical crop, grows well at a temperature between 27oC and 32oC but temp., below 16oC is harmful for the crop., II. It requires a moderate rainfall between 3065 cm., , (c) Mesosphere, , (b) Over-urbanization, , (d) Neither 1 nor 2, , 3. International Date Line is an imaginary, straight line on the earth where the date, changes by exactly one day when it is, crossed., , (b) A, C and D, , (c) Tanzania, , (c) Both 1 and 2, , III. It is rich in carbohydrates, proteins, minerals and vitamins hence provide cheap food, to a large section of poor population., , IV. It is mainly grown in Maharashtra,, Karnataka and Madhya Pradesh., Codes:, (a) Bajra, , (b) Jowar, , (c) Maize, , (d) Ragi, , (d) Semi-urbanisation, , 2, , Geography

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15. The Himalayas form a highly rugged and continuous stretch of high mountains and exhibits, landforms which develop when strata are intensely folded. Which of the followings are, found in the Himalayas?, (i) Anticlinal ridges, , Select the correct answer code from below:, (a) Only I is correct, (b) Only II is correct, (c) Both I and II are correct, (d) Neither I not II is correct, , (ii) Synclinal valleys, (iii) Recumbent folds, (iv) Nappes, Codes:, (a) i, ii, iii only, (b) ii, iii, iv only, (c) i, iii, iv only, (d) All the above, 16. Which one of the following pairs is not correctly matched., (a) South East Central Railway : Bilaspur, (b) South - Eastern Railway: Kolkata, (c) South Central Railway : Secundrabad, (d) Southern Railway : Bengaluru, 17. Glacier is a slowly moving mass or river of ice, formed by the accumulation and compaction, of snow on mountains or near the poles. Match, the following glaciers with the correct States, where they are located., List I, List II, A. Nubra Glacier, I. Sikkim, B. Bhaga Glacier, II. Himachal Pradesh, C. Rathong Glacier, III. J&K, D. Sona Glacier, IV. Uttarakhand, Codes:, (a) A-III; B-II; C-I; D-IV, (b) A-III; B-II; C-IV; D-I, (c) A-II; B-III; C-I; D-IV, (d) A-IV; B-III; C-II; D-I, 18. Consider the following statements:, I. The human development index (HDI) ranks, the countries based on their performance, in the key areas of child health, sanitation,, food, adult education and access to resources., II. These rankings are based on a score between 0 and 1 that a country earns from, its record in the key areas of human development., Geography, , 19. In which of the following States/ Union Territories, no community has been declared as a, Scheduled Tribe?, (a) Goa, Gujarat and Uttar Pradesh, (b) Rajasthan, Tripura and West Bengal, (c) Kerala, Tamil Nadu and Maharashtra, (d) Haryana, Punjab and Pondicherry, 20. Among the given factors, which have the modifying effect on the direction of ocean currents?, (1) Prevailing wind, (2) Rotation of earth, (3) Configuration of coast line, (4) Bottom relief of the ocean., Codes:, (a) (1) & (3), , (b) (1), (2) & (3), , (c) (1), (3) & (4), , (d) All the above., , 21. Which of the following statements regarding, watershed management is/are correct?, A. Watershed management basically refers to, efficient management and conservation of, surface and groundwater resources., B. Watershed management aims at bringing, about balance between natural resources, on the one hand and society on the other., C. Haryali is a watershed development project, sponsored by the Central Govt. which aims, at enabling the urban population to conserve water., Codes:, (a) A and B only, (b) A and C only, (c) B and C only, (d) All of them, 22. Which of the following states is a major rubber, producing state of India?, (a) Kerala-Karnataka-Tripura -Tamil Nadu, (b) Kerala- Karnataka-Tamil Nadu - Tripura, 3

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(c) Kerala-Tamil Nadu -Karnataka-Tripura, , (c) Falkland Island, , (d) Kerala-Tamil Nadu-Tripura-Karnataka, , (d) Turks & Caicos Island, , 23. Choose the rights statements:1. India has the largest deposits of mica while, U.S.A. is the top producer in the world., , 25. Consider the following statements:1. Equatorial Rainforest has, biodiversity, , highest, , 2. Corals reefs are considered rainforest of the, ocean & Sea, , 3. Russia has the largest reserves of natural, gas & fresh water in the world., , 3. Amphibians are considered as a good sensor for Air Pollution in the region., , CH, IA R, S ON, AC I, C, AD L, E, EM, Y, , 2. India is the sixth largest consumer & importer of the oil in the world., , (a) All, , (b) 1 & 2 only, , (c) 1 & 3 only, , (d) 2 & 3 only, , 4. Mangroves are part of Equatorial rainforest., , 24. Which among these islands in a bone of contention between U.K. & Argentina?, (a) Spratly Island, , Which of the statements given above are correct?, (a) All, (b) 1, 2 & 3 only, (c) 2, 3 & 4 only, , (d) 1 & 4 only, , (b) Shetland Island, , ❖❖❖, , 4, , Geography

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GEOGRAPHY SAMPLE QUESTIONS, (ANSWERS), , CHRONICLE, IAS ACADEMY, , CH, IA R, S O, AC NI, C, AD L, E, EM, Y, , A CIVIL SERVICES CHRONICLE INITIATIVE, , 1 (a), , 14 (b), , 2 (d), , 15 (d), , 3 (c), , 16 (d), , 4 (b), , 17 (a), , 5 (a), , 18 (b), , 6 (d), , 19 (d), , 7 (a), , 20 (d), , 8 (d), , 21 (a), , 9 (c), , 22 (d), , 10 (d), , 23 (d), , 11 (c), , 24 (c), , 12 (c), , 25 (b), , 13 (d), ,


, , Geography, , 1

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GEOGRAPHY UPSC, QUESTIONS, 1. Which one of the following pairs is correctly, matched?, Geographical Feature, (a) Abyssinian Plateau :, , Region, Arabia, , (b) Atlas Mountains :, , North-Western, Africa, , (c) Guiana Highlands :, , South-Western, Africa, , (d) Okavango Basin :, , Patagonia, , 2. Variations in the length of daytime and nighttime from season to season are due to, (a) the earth's rotation on its axis, (b) the earth's revolution round the sun in an, elliptical manner, (c) latitudinal position of the place, (d) revolution of the earth on a tilted axis, 3. The Narmada river flows to the west, while, most other large peninsular rivers flow to the, east. Why?, 1. It occupies a linear rift valley., 2. It flows between the Vindhyas and the, Satpuras., 3. The land slopes to the west from Central, India., , 5. The most important fishing grounds of the world, are found in the regions where, (a) warm and cold atmospheric currents meet, (b) rivers drain out large amounts of fresh, water into the sea, (c) warm and cold oceanic currents meet, (d) continental shelf is undulating, 6. Which of the following is/are unique characteristic/characteristics of equatorial forests?, 1. Presence of tall, closely set trees with, crowns forming a continuous canopy, 2. Coexistence of a large number of species, 3. Presence of numerous varieties of epiphytes, Select the correct answer using the code given, below:, (a) 1 only, (b) 2 and 3 only, (c) 1 and 3 only, (d) 1, 2 and 3, 7. The annual range of temperature in the interior, of the continents is high as compared to coastal, areas. What is / are the reason / reasons?, 1. Thermal difference between land and water, , Select the correct answer using the codes given, below., (a) 1 only, , 2. Variation in altitude between continents, and oceans, , (b) 2 and 3, , 4. Heavy rains in the interior as compared to, coasts, , (c) 1 and 3, (d) None, 4. On the planet earth, most of the freshwater, exists as ice caps and glaciers. Out of the remaining freshwater, the largest proportion, (a) is found in atmosphere as moisture and, clouds, , 3. Presence of strong winds in the interior, , Select the correct answer using the codes given, below., (a) 1 only, (b) 1 and 2 only, (c) 2 and 3 only, (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4, , (b) is found in freshwater lakes and rivers, (c) exists as groundwater, , 8. Which of the following is / are the characteristic/ characteristics of Indian coal?, , (d) exists as soil moisture, GeographyIAS Academy, ©Chronicle, , 1

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1. High ash content, , (a) 1 and 4, , 2. Low sulphur content, , (b) 2 and 3 only, , 3. Low ash fusion temperature, , (c) 1, 2 and 3, (d) 2, 3 and 4, 12. "Climate is extreme, rainfall is scanty and the, people used to be nomadic herders.", , CH, IA R, S ON, AC I, C, AD L, E, EM, Y, , Select the correct answer using the codes given, below., (a) 1 and 2 only, (b) 2 only, , (c) 1 and 3 only, , (d) 1, 2 and 3, , 9. Which of the following statements regarding, laterite soils of India are correct?, 1. They are generally red in colour., 2. They are rich In nitrogen and potash., , 3. Tiley are well-developed in Rajasthan and, UP., , 4. Tapioca and cashew nuts grow well on, these soils., , Select the correct answer using the codes given, below., (a) 1, 2 and 3, (b) 2, 3 and 4, (c) 1 and 4, , (d) 2 and 3 only, , 10. Consider the following statements:, 1. Natural gas occurs in the Gondwana beds., 2. Mica occurs in abundance in Kodarma., 3. Dharwars are famous for petroleum., , The above statement best describes which of, the following regions?, (a) African Savannah, (b) Central Asian Steppe, , (c) North American Prairie, , (d) Siberian Tundra, , 13. Among the following States, which one has the, most suitable climatic conditions for the cultivation of a large variety of orchids with minimum cost of production, and can develop an, export oriented industry in this field?, (a) Andhra Pradesh, (b) Arunachal Pradesh, (c) Madhya Pradesh, , (d) Uttar Pradesh, , 14. The formation of ozone hole in the Antarctic, region has been a cause of concern. What could, be the reason for the formation of this hole?, (a) Presence of prominent tropo-spheric turbulence; and inflow of chlorofluorocarbons, (b) Presence of prominent polar front and, stratospheric' clouds; and inflow of chlorofluorocarbons, , Which of the statements given above is/are, correct?, (a) 1 and 2, , (c) Absence of polar front and stratospheric, clouds; and inflow of methane and chlorofluorocarbons, , (b) 2 only, , (d) Increased temperature at polar region due, to global warming, , (c) 2 and 3, , (d) None, , 11. Consider the following crops, 1. Cotton, 2. Groundnut, 3. Rice, , 4. Wheat, , Which of these are Kharif crops?, , 2, , 15. Two important rivers - one with its source in, Jharkhand (and known by a different name in, Odisha), and another, with its source in Odisha, - merge at a place only a short distance from, the coast of Bay of Bengal before flowing into, the sea. This is an important site of wildlife and, biodiversity and a protected area. Which one of, the following could be this?, (a) Bhitarkanika, (b) Chandipur-on-sea, , Geography

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(c) Gopalpur-on-sea, (d) Simlipal, 16. India is regarded as a country with "Demographic Dividend". This is due to, (a) Its high population in the age group below, 15 years, (b) Its high population in the age group of 1564 years, (c) Its high population in the age group above, 65 years, , Which of the statements given above is/are, correct?, (a) 1 only, (b) 2 only, (c) Both 1 and 2, , (d) Neither 1 nor 2, , 20. Which one of the following is the characteristic, climate of the Tropical Savannah Region?, (a) Rainfall throughout the year, (b) Rainfall in winter only, (c) An extremely short dry season, (d) A definite dry and wet season, , (d) Its high total population, 17. La Nina is suspected to have caused recent, floods in Australia. How is La Nina different, from El Nino?, 1. La Nina is characterised by unusually cold, ocean temperature in equatorial Indian, Ocean whereas El Nino is characterised by, unusually warm ocean temperature in the, equatorial Pacific Ocean., 2. El Nino has adverse effect on south-west, monsoon of India, but La Nina has no effect on monsoon climate., Which of the statements given above is/are, correct?, (a) 1 only, (b) 2 only, (c) Both 1 and 2, (d) Neither 1 nor 2, 18. A person stood alone in a desert on a dark, night and wanted to reach his village which, was situated 5 km east of the point where he, was standing. He had no instruments to find, the direction but he located the polestar. The, most convenient way now to reach his village, is to walk in the, (a) Direction facing the polestar, (b) Direction opposite to the polestar, (c) Direction keeping the polestar to his left, (d) Direction keeping the polestar to his right, 19. Consider the following statements:, 1. The duration of the monsoon decreases, from southern India to northern India., 2. The amount of annual rainfall in the northern plains of India decreases from east to, west., Geography, , 21. Westerlies in southern hemisphere are stronger, and persistent than in northern hemisphere., Why?, 1. Southern hemisphere has less landmass as, compared to northern hemisphere., 2. Coriolis force is higher in southern hemisphere as compared to northern hemisphere, Which of-the statements given above is/are, correct?, (a) 1 only, (b) 2 only, (c) Both 1 and 2, (d) Neither 1 nor 2, 22. Consider the following agricultural practices:, 1. Contour bunding, 2. Relay cropping, 3. Zero tillage, In the context of global climate change, which, of the above helps/help in carbon sequestration/storage in the soil?, (a) 1 and 2 only, (b) 3 only, (c) 1, 2 and 3, , (d) None of them, , 23. The lower Gangetic plain is characterized by, humid climate with high temperature throughout the year. Which one among the following, pairs of crops is most suitable for this region?, (a) Paddy and cotton, (b) Wheat and Jute, (c) Paddy and Jute, (d) Wheat and cotton, 24. Which of the following is the chief characteristic of 'mixed farming'?, 3

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(a) Cultivation of both cash crops and food, crops, , 2. It has over 80% of its area under forest, cover., , (b) Cultivation of two or more crops in the, same field, , 3. Over 12% of forest cover constitutes protected Area Network in this State., , (c) Rearing of animals and cultivation of crops, together, , CH, IA R, S ON, AC I, C, AD L, E, EM, Y, , (d) None of the above, , Which one among the following States has all, the above characteristics?, (a) Arunachal Pradesh, , 25. A particular State in India has the following, characteristics:, 1. It is located on the same latitude which, passes through northern Rajasthan., , (b) Assam, , (c) Himachal Pradesh, , (d) Uttarakhand, , ❖❖❖, , 4, , Geography

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GEOGRAPHY UPSC QUESTIONS, (ANSWERS), , CHRONICLE, IAS ACADEMY, , CH, IA R, S O, AC NI, C, AD L, E, EM, Y, , A CIVIL SERVICES CHRONICLE INITIATIVE, , 1 (b), , 14 (b), , 2 (b), , 15 (a), , 3 (a), , 16 (b), , 4 (c), , 17 (a), , 5 (c), , 18 (c), , 6 (d), , 19 (c), , 7 (a), , 20 (d), , 8 (a), , 21 (a), , 9 (c), , 22 (a), , 10 (a), , 23 (c), , 11 (b), , 24 (c), , 12 (b), , 25 (a), , 13 (b), ,


, , Geography, , 1