Page 1 :
VEDIC PERIOD, The Indus civilisation declined around 1700 BC due to a variety of causes. The advent of, , the Aryans in India around 1500 BC marked the beginning of the, Rig Vedic (Early Vedie, Period) from 1500 1000 BC followed by the Later Vedic Period from 1000 600 BC., , Origlnal Home and ldentity: The world 'Aryan' literally means 'of high birth', but, generally the word Aryan' is used to refer to people who spoke the Indo-Aryan, , language. The question of original home of the Aryans Is perhaps the most controverslal, , topic, , of anclent Indian, , history and a variety of oplnions have been put forward by, different scholars. Though consensus eludes the scholars, most of the scholars, agree, with the theory put forward by the Max Muller that, Aryans came to India from Central, Asia., Most scholars agree that the culture of the, , Aryans, , was more, , or, , less of the, , some, , type., , Originally they lived somewhere in the steppes stretching from Southern Russia to, Central Asia and spoke the Indo-European languages which are currently spoken in, changed forms all bver Europe, Iran and the grater part of the Indian subcontinent., Asa, resul. several words of common usage show the striking similarities between Sanskrit, and, , some of the principal languages of Europe. The earliest life of the Aryans seem, , to, , have been mainly pastoral; agriculture being a secondary occupation. Their society was, , male dominated. They, , have domesticated- yarious animals the most, important, of which was the horse. The domesticated horse, in, sixth, millennium B.C in, appears th, the Black Sea and the Ural mountain area. The swiftness of the, horse enabled the, to, move, in different directions from about 2000 B.C. onwards either, people, from, pressure of population, shifting of course of rivers or from desiccation of posture lands., seem to, , The tall, comparatively fair, and mostly long-headed Aryans harnessed the horses to, light chariots with spoked wheels and migrated in bands westwards, southwards and, eastwards. They brought with them their patrilinear famlly syatem, their, of, , worship, , sky, , gods and thelr horses and chariots. Some invaded Europe, toþeoome the ancestors of, , the Greeks, Latin's, Colts- and Tautens. Other appeared in Anatolla called the Hittites,, the Kassltes conquered Babylon and a north-east Syrra a, people called Mittani, whose, had, fndo-Iranian names is attested to by inscriptions. The Boghaz Kui, kings, inscriptions, dated to 1400 BC gives the copy of.a peace treaty between the Hittites and the Maryanni, rulers of the Mittanni, in which the names of the Vedic gods-Indra, Mitra, Nasatya and, , Varuna, , mentioned. Yet other groups of Aryans speaking Indo-Iranian, language, moved to the border between Indian and Iran where, one group migrated to Indla, are, , speaking- Indo-Aryan and another group migrated to lIran. So, the lariguage of Zend, Avesta (old Persian) is very similar to the Rig Vedic Sanskrit. In, fact, the Vedic culture
Page 2 :
has close affinities wih the ancient Aryan culture of Iran as both of them seem to have, , derived from one and the same Indo-Iranian culture. The migrants to India called, themselves Aryans, a word generally anglicized with Aryans. The name was also used, by the ancient Persians, and Survives in the word Iran. The Persian Achaemenid, , emperor Darius I called himself as Aryan in the 6h century B.C., A Hitte earlier then 1500 B.C., the Aryans appeared in India. We have archaeolagical, , traces of thelr advent. Possibly they used Socketed axes, bronze dirks and swords,, which have been discovered in North-western India. Archaeological evidence of the, horse and cremation apears in Swat Valley in Pakistan. The earliest Indo-Aryan lived in, the geographical area covered by eastern Afghanistan, Noth-West Frontier Province,, Punjab. Since Afighanistan was occupied by the Indo-Aryans and the Iranian Aryans for, some time, a part of this country came to be known as Araya or Haralya. It is important, to understand that the Aryan invasion of India theory has beem rendered obsolete for, , want of archaeologlcal evidence and has been replaced by the theory of Aryan migration, to Indian occuring in several waves over several centuries, the earliest wave of whichis, represented by the Rig Vedic people who appeared in the sub-continent in about 1500, B.C., , Geography of the Vedic Age, , Early Vedic Period: The Rig Veda is the only source which gives us an idea of the, , geography of the Early Vedic Period. The Aryans in 1hè early Vedic age had knowlecdge, of the Indus valey which was called Saptasindavah or the land of the seven rivers. Indus, (sindhu is the most mentioned river in the Rig Veda. Indus had various tributaries, , Joining it from the west such as Suvasthu (swat), Kubha (Kabul), Krumu (Kuram) and, Gomati (Gomal). Indus also had various tributaries joining it from the east such as, , Sutudri (Sutlej), Vipasa (Beas), Parushinl (Ravi), Asikni (Chenabs) and Vitase (Jhelüm)., Saraswati s considered as the holiest river in the age of the Rig Veda many hymns were, , composed on its banks. Saraswati is referred to as 'Naditärna' or the best of the rivers in, the Rig Veda. Saraswati is ldentified with the Ghaggar-Hakra Ghannel in Haryana and, , Rajasthan. But its Rig Vedlc description shows it to be the Avestan river Haraxwati, , (helmand river) in south Afghanistan from where the name Saraswati was transferred to, Indla. Yamuna is mentioned thrice and Ganga is mentioned only once. Though Rig Veda, mentions the term 'Samudra' It probably meant only a collection of water and ndt sea., So, we have no reference to the sea in the Rig Veda. Fig Vedicpeople had knowledge, of Himvant or the snow mountains. They also had knowledge of Majuvant from which, , Aryans got Soma, an intoxicating drink. Soma was the dgink of Gods. So, the Rig Vedic, Aryans had knowledge of eastern Afghanistan, North West Frontier Provinces and the, Punjab (Punjab then included east Punjab, west Punjab as also Haryana).
Page 3 :
Later Vedic Period: In this period, the Aryans moved into the eastern areas as is, evident from the story of Videga Madhava in Satapatha Brahmana according to which, Videga Madhova started from river Saraswati with fire god Agni and with his help moved, , eastwards till he reached river Gandak (Sadanira). He then crossed the easten bank of, rver Gandak leading to the naming of the areg as Videha', apparently named after its, , first Aryan Coloniser. So, the Aryans with the help of fire and Iron tools expanded into, Western Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and upto thei borders of Bengal. In this process of, expansion the Janas' (Units of tribal peopie) of the early Vedic age were transformed, , into Janapadas' (teritory under units of tribal people) of the later Vedic age. The Aryans, in the later Vedic age also acqulred knowledge of the eastem sea and the western sea., , They also had knowledge of Narmada river and the Vindhyan mountains. The Aitreya, Brahmana, a text of the later Vedic age divides the country into five parts, , north, east,, , west, south and the Central parts., Political Structure, , Early Vedic Períod: The Aryans were engaged in two types of conflicts-first, they, fought with the pre-Aryans, and secondly, they fought amongst themselves. The Rig, Vedic people came into conflict with the indigenous inhabita.nts called the dasas, dasyus, etc. Singe the dasas álso appear in the ancient Iranian literature, they seem to have, , been a branch of the early Aryans. The Rig Veda mentions the defeat of Sambara by a, chief catled Divodasa, who belonged to the Bharata clan. In this case the term das, , appears in the name Divodasa. Possibly the dasyus in the Rigveda represent the, original inhabitants of the country, and an Aryan chief who overpowered them was called, , Trasadasyu. The Aryan chief was soft towards the dasa, but strongly hostile to the, , dasyus. The tem dasyuhatya, slaughter of the dasýus, is repeatedly imentioned in the, Rig Veda. The dasyus possibly worshipped the phallus and did not keep cattle for dairy, , products. In the Rig Veda, Indra is called Purandhara which means that he was the, breaker of forts. But the so called fots have not been identifipd.", The Dasarajna or the battle of the ten kings is an important'historical evet which took, place on the banks of Parushni (Ravi) river. In this battie, Sudas, fhe son of Divodas and, the Bharata king of Tritsu farmnily fought with and won over an alliance of ten tribes of, which five were Aryan and another five were non-Aryan. In this batle, Purukutsa, the, leader of the ten tribes was killed. This battle broke out because of a dispute. between, , Vasishta, the priest of the Bharatas and Visvamitra, the priest who supported thel ten, tribes. Another issue which sparked off the conflict was the division of the waters of the, , Parushni. Another important batte took place on the banks of the Yamuna where Sudas, , defeated a confederacy of three non-Aryan tribes led by king Bheda.
Page 5 :
in this period. The popular assemtblies lost power and importance. The Vidhata, , completely disappeared. The Sabha and Samlti were waging a losing batle for power, with the king. Women were no longer permitted to sit on the Sabha, and it was now, dominated by nobles and brahmanas. Traces of election of king appear in later Vedio, texts. The king received voluntary presents called 'ball from the common people called, Vis. Kingship was usually hereditary thqugh not always so. The king inftuence was, , strengthened by rituals like the rajasuya sacritrice, which was supposed to confer, supreme power on him. He performed the ashvamedha sacrifice, which meant, , unquestioned control over an area in which the royal horse ran uninterrupted. He also, performed the Vajapeya or the Chariot race, in which the royal chariot was made to win, he race agalnst his kinsmen. All thee rituals added to the power and prestige of the, king. Also the collection of taxes and tributes deposited with an officercalled Sangrihitri, provided the king with a source of revenue, The king was assisted in central, , adninistration by an increasing number of officials but a structured bureaucracy did not, iyet come into being. At the lawer level, the administration was possibly carried on by, village assemblies, which may have been controlled by the chiefs of the dominant clans., These assemblies also tried local cases. But even in later Vedic times the king did not, possess a standing army. Tribal units continued tò be mustered In times of war. The, political systern was growing in complexity and the Aitreya Brahmana gives references, to five types of state systems such as Rajya, Bhojya, Swarajya, Vairajya and, Samrajya., , Ralya was.ruied by Raj, Bhoiya by Bhoj, Swaraiya by Swarat, Vairajya by Virat and, ', , Samrajya by Samrat., Economic Life, Early Vedic Periód: The, , people, , in the, , early Vedic age, , were, , predominantly pastoral,, , though agricuture was also practiced. Various animals as cow, sheep, goat, camel, bull, horse were reared of which the most important was the cow. The, men prosperous with, many cattle was called Gomath. Wealth was computed in the form of cow. Cattle were, , also given as gifts or dhakshina to the priests. Land does not flgure as an item of, donation and postures, , were, , more important. The terms for, , in, , the Rig Veda is, gavishti or the search for cows. Most of the wars were fought for the sake of cows., People also fought for possession of good grazing grounds. Prayers were made for, war, , iincrease in the cattle wealth. Panis were non-aryans involved in barter, (pan). They were, i Much criticised in the Rig Veda for stealing cows and, thereby amassing huge cattle, wealth. In the, , early Vedic period, agriculture, , was, , secondary, , to, , postoralism., , The, , Cultivated field ws known as kshetra and, ploughing was known as Krishi. The, plough, was known as, or, Langla Sira. Ployghshare was known as Phala. Furrous were known as, , Sita, , though, , later, , on, , Sita, , came to, , signity, , wealth, , produaed, , in, , lánd. Rig Veda also
Page 6 :
provides references of ploughed fields, stone pulley wheels and irrigation channels. The, Rig Veda mentions only one food grain called Yava' which in later times had the specific, sense of barley but in Rigveda it is the common name for any food grain. Cotton, Rioce,, , Wheat are nowhere mentioned in the Rigveda., Ajas' is the common metal having the colour of Sun or fire and is used to refer to copper, , o r bronze. it does not indiate Iron. Hiranya or gold is mentioned as otained from river, sands. The spoked wheel mentioned in the Rig Veda is a new deveiopment. The, smelting of metals.was known ahd metal smellers were called Karmar. Rig Veda, mentions' grama' which is a fighting unit on the move and not a village. The Rig Veda, does not mention of any Nagar. Hariyuppa is mentioned as a Pur (fort), its identlied, with Harappa. The Rig Vedic Aryans used copper hordes and their predominant potery, type is Ochre Coloured Pottery (OCP) though Black and Red ware type of pottery was, , also knowm to them., Rig Vedic economy was a pre-state economy in which taxation system was not, developed and hali was a fom of voluntary contribution given by the produces to the, king. t was not a usual form of tax. Whatever the king acquired by way of cotbutions, was redistributed among his subjects as a result of which there were no big diferences, in wealth among the various sections of the Sociely., , Later Vedic Period: The later Vedic age saw the expansion of people into the easten, , areas using fire and iron. Iron objects have been fgund in north India in the bracket of, 1000 700 BC. Iron was initially used for weapons and later on for agriculture. The,, Aryans while moving eastwards integrated the technological knowledge of the, , indigenous people as a result many non-aryan words entered the. Vedic literature and, agriculture aiso became advanced. Various crops are mentioned in the literature of the, , later Vedic age-including sice, wheat, sugarcane, lentil,, barley, millet, mustard. etc., Various crop protection mantras are also mentioned. Atharta contains many references, , t o agriculture. Surplus was produced in agriculture in the later Vedic age. Wheat, barley, and rioe have been found from later Vedic strata. Rice is mentioned as Vrihi and wheat, , as 'godhuma' and barley as yava'. Sugarcane is mentioned as "Tkshu'. We still do not, have, , references to land donation though land became more important. Cattle rearing, , continued to be practiced though agriculture was the predominant economic activity. The, , people In the later Vedio age are associated with Painted Grey Ware (PGW) alongwith, use of Iron, watte and doab houses, rice and horses. Iron in the later Vedic age is, mentioned as Krishna-ayes' or the black metal. Lots of improvement was made in the, arts and Crafts: Besides the copper and bronze workers, there appeared Iron smiths and, , chariot makers. Shipping was known to people i: the later Vedic age. We. have
Page 7 :
reference to the trading activities and use of coins, though coins were nowhere, , excavated from later Vedic age strata. Coins were first found archaeologically only in the, , pre-mauryan period., The increasing resources of the later Vedic age were pooled by the king. Bali became a, , customary contribution, bhaga was a share of the produce (1/6h to 1/2) while shulka was, an additional tax. It appears that bhaga was the oldest tax levied on, people by the kings., , But bali, bhaga _and shulka were still not full fledged taxes. The Vaishyas or Vis, community was the chief tax payers. The resources were unequally distributed by the, king for the benefit of the brahmanas and kshatriyas at the expense of the Valshyas and, , Sudras. This led to increasing inequalities in the' distribution of wealth. There was, increasing complexity of the Social and political organisation which added a new, , dimension, , to the, , economic development.., , Vedic Society, Early Vedic Periad: Kinship was the basis of social structure, and a man was identified, ..with the clan to which he belonged. Rigveda society is basically, society. The Rig, a, Veda shows some consciousness of the, physical appearance of people in the, northwestem part of india in about 1500 1000 B.C. Varna as used in the Rig Veda means, , tribal, , coloure The Rig Veda speaks about Arya vama (Aryans) and dasa vana (non-aryans),, , where possibly the distinction was on the basis of colour., The Arya varna consisted of the Aryans whose tribes were called 'Janas'. The term, , Janapada' or territory is not used even once in the Rig Veda since the territory or, kingdoh was not yet established. The jana was divided into group of people caled Vis', The Vis was divided into grama or smaller tribal units meaDnt for fighting. When the, , gramas clashed with one another it caused Sangrama or war. Gramas were divided into, Kulas (family) the head of which was called Kulapa. The tribal society of the Rig Vedic, period is broadly divided into three groups - priests, warriars and the people. The fourth, division called the Shudras appeared towards the end of the Rig Vedic period, because, , the term Shudra is mentioned for the first time in the tenth book of the Rig Veda, which is, , the latest addition. In the age of the Rig Veda differentiation based on occupations had, started, but this divislon was not very sharp. The most numerous varna of Vaishya arose, out of the Vis or the mass of the tribal people. Towards the end of the, early Vedic period,, the exploitation of vis led to creation of social inequalites, and this helped the ríse of, , princes and priests at the cost, and largely egalitarian., , of the common tribal, , people., , But the, , society was, , till, , tribal, , The non-Aryan consisted of dasas, dasyus and panis. The dasas conquered by the, , Aryans were gradually transformed into Sudras. Dasas were called as Avrata (not
Page 8 :
obeying the ordinances of gods), akratu (not following sacrlfices), anasah (snub nosed),, , midravach (indistinct speech) and Kishnatvach (dark skinned). There was active, hostility towards the dasyus and it was more distinct than towards the dasa. Panis were, the trading community with lot of cattle wealth and were despised by the Aryans., We repeatedily hear of slaves who were given as gifts to the priests. They were mainly, women slaves employed for domestic purposes. t is clear that in Rig Vedic times slaves, ,were not used directly in agricuture or other productive activities. Untouchabjlity is, unknown in the Rig Vedic period., The concept of 'Gotra' did not arise in the Rig Vedic period. So people in the Rig Vedic, , period married Irrespective of the concept of Gotra., Later Vedic Period: The later Vedic society came to be divided into four Varnas called, , the brahmanas, rajanyas or kshatriyas, valshyas and shudras. The growinig cüit of, sacrifices enormously added to the power of the brahmanas. in the beginning the, brahmanas were only one of the sixteen ciasses of priests, but they gradually, overshadowed the other priestly groups and emerged as the most important class., , Sometimes the brahmanas come into coñflict with the rajanyas, who represented the, , order of the warrior-nobles, for positions of supremacy. But when the two upper orders, had to deal with the lower orders they made up their diferences. From the end of the, later Vedic period on it began to be emphasised that the two should cooperate to rule, , over the rest of the society. The Vaishyas constituted the common people and were, involved in producting functions such as agricultu, , cattle-breeding etc. Some of them, , also werked as artisans. However, towards the end of the later Vedic age, the name, Vaishya began to be equated with the trading class. The Valshyas appear to be the only, itribute-payers in later Vedic times, and the brahmanas and Kshatriyas are represented, , as living on the tributes collected from he Vaishyas. All the thiee higher vamas shared, osone common feature: they were entitled to upanayana r investiture with the sacred, , thread according to the Vedic mantras. The fourth varna' was deprived of the sacred, thread ceremony and the recitation of the gayatri mantra and with this began the, imposition of disablities on the sudras. Nevertheless, there were several public rituals, connected with the coronation of the king in which the Sudras paricipated. Certain, , sections of artisans such as rathakara or chariotmaker enjoyed a high status, and were, entitled to the sacred thread ceremony. Therefore, even in later Vedic times varna, distinctions had not advanced very far., The instiution of gotra appeared. in later Vedic times. iterally it means the cow-pen or, , the place where cattle belonging to the whole clan are kept, but in course of time it, signified descent froma common ancestor. People began to practice gotra Exogamy. No
Page 9 :
marriage could take place between persons belonging to the same gotra are having the, , same lineage., Ashramas or four stages of life wete not well established in Vedic times. in the, postvedic texts we hear of four ashramas tht of Brahmachari or, Student, Grihasta or, Householder, vanaprastha or hertmit and Sanyasin or ascetic who completely renounced, the worldly life. Only the first three are mentidned in the later, Vedic texts; the last or the, fourth stage had not been well established in later Vedic, times though ascetic-life was, not unknown. Even in post-vedic times only the, stage of the householder was, , commonly, , practised by all the varnas., , Posltion of Women in the Vedic Period, Early Vedic Period: Rig Vedic society was, , patriarchal and patilinear society with, patrilocal noims. The birth of daughters was not desired, but once they were bom, they, were treated with kindness and consideration. Their, education was not neglected and, of, some, them even composed hymns and rose to the rank of seers. Girls, were married, a, , long after they reached puberly. There seems to have been considerable freedom in, the, selectlon of a husband, Monogamy was the rule though, was, , Polyandy, , was, , also evident, , polygamy, , permitted., , as is, , seen in maruts mariage with Rodasi. The, practise of, Niyoga existed. Niyoga was a variant of widow remarriage in which a young childless, widow was temporarily married with the husband's brother, for the purpose of, producing, children. There was no stigma altached to Niyoga. Womeh had a, of, position honour in, , the, no, , household. The wife participated in the religious offerings of the, husband. There is, evidence of seclusion of women as is seen by women's participåtion in, and, , Vidhatha, , Sabha., , Later Vedic Period: The status of women, declined in the later Vegic period relative to, the early Vedic period. There was an, attempt towards, of soclal, stratification on gender lines. The birth of the girl child was, rMet welcome. Upanayana, , estaiishment, , ceremony (investiture ceremony) was not performed for girls., Though right to education, was denied for girls, we have reference to, women as, , katyayai. Many religious ceremonies, , great scholarly, , gargi, maitreyi and, , earlier performed by women were, by priests. Women also were deprived of the right to attend assembles. now performed, , Vedic Religion, Early Vedic Period: The Rig Vedic religion was anthropamorphic In nature. The failure, of the Aryans to understand and, explain the various natural phenomena made them, personity the natural forces, attributing, to them human or, There, , 33, , were, animal qualities., the three divisioris of the, , Rig Vedic gods divided into three groups corresponding to, , ,
Page 10 :
universe,, , namely terrestrial (prithivsthana),, , atmospheric, , (antarikshasthana, , or, , madhyamastana) and celestial (dyusthana). The prominent Rig Vedic gods were,, Indra: He is the most important Rig Vedic god and 250 hymns are devoted to him. He is, known as Purandhara or the breaker of forths. He played the role of a warlord and is, , also fconsidered to be the r¡in god. A hymn tells of his most significant victory, his, triumph over the demon vrita and the release of the waters. indra is known by various, names as, , Rathestha, Shatakrata, Jlitendera, Meghavan and Somapa., , Agnt: He ls the fire god who is the second most important god. 200 Rig Vedic hymns, are devoted to him. He is considered as the intermediary between the gods and the, , people. Agni is the personification of the sacrificial fire. Agni is the priest of the gods and, the, *, , god of the priests. He has three forms: terrestrial, , as, , fire, atmospheric, , as, , lightning,, , and celestial as the sun.The cult of fire occupied a central space not only in India but, also in Iran., Varuna: He was supposed to uphold the Rta or the natural order. He regulates al, activities in this world. He is called the word sovereign. He is the personification of, water. All gods obey him and none can defy his orders., Soma: Soma was the god of plants and an intoxicating drink is named after hiy. In, , many hymns the method of preparation of Soma drink has been mentioned. Soma is the, , drink of Gods., Maruts:, , They personify the stom, , Aditi:, , Goddess of eternity, Goddess of the forest, , Arnayani:, , ', , Nirrti:, , Goddess of decay and death., Goddess of dawn, Ushas, Sarma, Messenger of Gods, Vastospatl: God of Settlements, Solar Phenomenon: Is worshipped in five forms as Sury,, , Mitra, Savita, Pushan and, , Vishny., They dominant mode of worship of gods was through the recitation of prayers and, offering of sacrifices. The Rig Vedic people did not worship gods for spiritual uplft or for, ending the miseries of existence. They asked mainly for Praja (children) Pashu (catle),, , food, wealth, health, etc., Later Vedic Period: The two outstanding Rig Vedic gods Indra' and agni lost their, former, , importance. On the other hand Prajapati the creator, came to occupy supremie
Page 11 :
positioning the later Vedic age. Rudra, a minor god in the Rig Vedic period became, important in later Vedic times. Vishnu came to be conceived as the preserver and, protector of the people. Pushan was the god who looked after the cattle and came to be, regarded as the god of the Shudras., , Though people continued to worship gods for material reasons, the mode of worship, changed considerably. Sacrifices tbolh domestic and public became more important than, , prayers. Sacrfices involved kiling of animals in publi, became more important than, prayers. Sacrtfices Involved the kiling of animals on a large scale leading to destruction, , of cattle weath, The guest was known as goghna or one who was fed on cattle. The, sacrificer was known as yajamana the performer of the yajna and he also carefully, pronounced the formulae. The formulae and sacrifices were invented, adopted and, elaborated by the priests called the brahmana_ who claimed a monopoly of priestly, , knowledge and expertise. The brahmanas were given dakshina or gits in the form of, cows, gold, cloth, horses and other materials. The Satapatha Brahmana states that in, , the ashvarmedha sacrifice, north, east, west and $outh should be given to th priest., There is a reference where land, which was being given to the priests, refused to be, transferred to them., , Towards the end of the Vedic period began a strong reaction against priestly domination,, against atlts and rituals, especially in the land of the Panchalas and Videha where,, around 600 B.C., the Upanishads were compiled. These philosophical texts criticised the, , rituals and laid stress on the value of right bellef and knowledge. They emphasised that, the knowledge of the self or atman should be acquired and the relation of atman with, Brahma should be properly understood. Kshatriyas called forr reform of the priest, , dominated eligion. There was emphasis on the changelessness, indestructibility and, immartality of atman or should and this served the cause of stabilty which was needed, , for the rising state power headed by the Kshatriya raja. Stress on the relation of atman, with Brahma fostered allegiance to superior authorily.
