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7, , TRIBES, NOMADS AND, SETTLED COMMUNITIES, , Y, , ou saw in Chapters 2, 3 and 4 how kingdoms, rose and fell. Even as this was happening, new, arts, crafts and production activities flourished in, towns and villages. Over the centuries important, political, social and economic developments had, taken place. But social change was not, the same everywhere, because different, kinds of societies evolved differently. It is, important to understand how, and why,, this happened., , Fig. 1, Tribal dance,, Santal painted scroll., , In large parts of the subcontinent, society, was already divided according to the rules, of varna. These rules, as prescribed by the, Brahmanas, were accepted by the rulers of, large kingdoms. The difference between the, high and low, and between the rich and poor,, increased. Under the Delhi Sultans and the, Mughals, this hierarchy between social, classes grew further., , Beyond Big Cities: Tribal, Societies, There were, however, other kinds of societies, as well. Many societies in the subcontinent, did not follow the social rules and rituals, prescribed by the Brahmanas. Nor were, they divided into numerous unequal, classes. Such societies are often called, tribes., 91, 2021-22, , TRIBES, NOMADS AND, SETTLED COMMUNITIES

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Members of each tribe were united by kinship bonds., Many tribes obtained their livelihood from agriculture., Others were hunter-gatherers or herders. Most often, they combined these activities to make full use of the, natural resources of the area in which they lived. Some, tribes were nomadic and moved from one place to, another. A tribal group controlled land and pastures, jointly, and divided these amongst households, according to its own rules., , ?, , Many large tribes thrived in different parts of the, subcontinent. They usually lived in forests, hills,, deserts and places difficult to reach. Sometimes they, clashed with the more powerful caste-based societies., In various ways, the tribes retained their freedom and, preserved their separate culture., , On a physical, map of the, subcontinent,, identify the areas, in which tribal, people may have, lived., , But the caste-based and tribal societies also, depended on each other for their diverse needs. This, relationship, of conflict and dependence, gradually, caused both societies to change., , Who were Tribal People?, Contemporary historians and travellers give very, scanty information about tribes. A few exceptions, apart, tribal people did not keep written records. But, they preserved rich customs and oral traditions. These, were passed down to each new generation. Presentday historians have started using such oral traditions, to write tribal histories., Tribal people were found in almost every region of, the subcontinent. The area and influence of a tribe, varied at different points of time. Some powerful tribes, controlled large territories. In Punjab, the Khokhar, tribe was very influential during the thirteenth and, fourteenth centuries. Later, the Gakkhars became more, important. Their chief, Kamal Khan Gakkhar, was, made a noble (mansabdar) by Emperor Akbar. In, Multan and Sind, the Langahs and Arghuns dominated, extensive regions before they were subdued by the, Mughals. The Balochis were another large and powerful, OUR PASTS, , –, , II, , 92, 2021-22

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Map 1, Location of some, of the major Indian, tribes., , tribe in the north-west. They were divided into many, smaller clans under different chiefs. In the western, Himalaya lived the shepherd tribe of Gaddis. The, distant north-eastern part of the subcontinent too was, entirely dominated by tribes – the Nagas, Ahoms and, many others., In many areas of pr esent-day Bihar and, Jharkhand, Chero chiefdoms had emerged by the, twelfth century. Raja Man Singh, Akbar’s famous, general, attacked and defeated the Cheros in 1591., A large amount of booty was taken from them, but, they were not entirely subdued. Under Aurangzeb,, Mughal forces captured many Chero fortresses and, subjugated the tribe. The Mundas and Santals were, among the other important tribes that lived in this, region and also in Orissa and Bengal., 93, 2021-22, , Clan, A clan is a group, of families or, households, claiming descent, from a common, ancestor. Tribal, organisation is, often based on, kinship or clan, loyalties., , TRIBES, NOMADS AND, SETTLED COMMUNITIES

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The Maharashtra highlands and, Karnataka were home to Kolis,, Berads and numerous others. Kolis, also lived in many areas of Gujarat., Further south there were large, tribal populations of Koragas,, Vetars, Maravars and many others., The large tribe of Bhils was, spread across western and central, India. By the late sixteenth century,, many of them had become settled, agriculturists and some even, zamindars. Many Bhil clans,, nevertheless, remained huntergatherers. The Gonds were found, in great numbers across the, present-day states of Chhattisgarh,, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra and, Andhra Pradesh., , How Nomads and Mobile, People Lived, Nomadic pastoralists moved over, long distances with their animals., They lived on milk and other, pastoral products. They also, exchanged wool, ghee, etc., with, settled agriculturists for grain,, cloth, utensils and other products., Fig. 2, Bhils hunting deer by night., Fig.3, A chain of mobile traders connected, India to the outside world. Here you, see nuts being gathered and loaded on, the backs of camels. Central Asian, traders brought such goods to India, and the Banjaras and other traders, carried these to local markets., OUR PASTS, , –, , II, , 94, 2021-22

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They bought and sold these goods as they moved, from one place to another, transporting them on their, animals., The Banjaras were the most important tradernomads. Their caravan was called tanda. Sultan, Alauddin Khalji (Chapter 3) used the Banjaras to, transport grain to the city markets. Emperor Jahangir, wrote in his memoirs that the Banjaras carried grain, on their bullocks from different areas and sold it in, towns. They transported food grain for the Mughal, army during military campaigns. With a large army, there could be 100,000 bullocks carrying grain., , The Banjaras, Peter Mundy, an English trader who came to India, during the early seventeenth century, has described, the Banjaras:, , In the morning we met a tanda of Banjaras with14,000 oxen., They were all laden with grains such as wheat and rice ..., These Banjaras carry their household – wives and children –, along with them. One tanda consists of many families. Their, way of life is similar to that of carriers who continuously, travel from place to place. They own their oxen. They are, sometimes hired by merchants, but most commonly they are, themselves merchants. They buy grain where it is cheaply, available and carry it to places where it is dearer. From there,, they again reload their oxen with anything that can be, profitably sold in other places … In a tanda there may be as, many as 6 or 7 hundred persons … They do not travel more, than 6 or 7 miles a day – that, too, in the cool weather. After, unloading their oxen, they turn them free to graze as there is, enough land here, and no one there to forbid them., , Nomads and, itinerant groups, Nomads are, wandering people., Many of them are, pastoralists who, roam from one, pasture to another, with their flocks, and herds., Similarly, itinerant, groups, such as, craftspersons,, pedlars and, entertainers travel, from place to place, practising their, different, occupations., Both nomads and, itinerant groups, often visit the, same places every, year., , Find out how grain is transported from villages to, cities at present. In what ways is this similar to or, different from the ways in which the Banjaras functioned?, , ?, , 95, 2021-22, , TRIBES, NOMADS AND, SETTLED COMMUNITIES

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Many pastoral tribes reared and sold animals, such, as cattle and horses, to the prosperous people., Different castes of petty pedlars, also travelled from village to, village. They made and, sold wares such as ropes,, reeds, straw matting and, coarse sacks. Sometimes, mendicants acted as, wandering merchants. There were castes of, entertainers who performed in different towns and, villages for their livelihood., , Fig. 4, Bronze crocodile,, Kutiya Kond tribe,, Orissa., , Changing Society: New Castes and, Hierarchies, As the economy and the needs of society grew, people, with new skills were required. Smaller castes, or jatis,, emerged within varnas. For example, new castes, appeared amongst the Brahmanas. On the other, hand, many tribes and social groups were taken into, caste-based society and given the status of jatis., Specialised artisans – smiths, carpenters and masons, – were also recognised as separate jatis by the, Brahmanas. Jatis, rather than varna, became the, basis for organising society., , Deliberations on jati, A twelfth-century inscription from Uyyakondan Udaiyar,, in Tiruchirapalli taluka (in present-day Tamil Nadu),, describes the deliberations in a sabha (Chapter 2) of, Brahmanas., They deliberated on the status of a group known as, rathakaras (literally, chariot makers). They laid down, their occupations, which were to include architecture,, building coaches and chariots, erecting gateways for, temples with images in them, preparing wooden, equipment used to perform sacrifices, building, mandapas, making jewels for the king., OUR PASTS, , –, , II, , 96, 2021-22

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Among the Kshatriyas, new Rajput clans became, powerful by the eleventh and twelfth centuries. They, belonged to different lineages, such as Hunas,, Chandelas, Chalukyas and others. Some of these, too,, had been tribes earlier. Many of these clans came to, be regarded as Rajputs. They gradually replaced the, older rulers, especially in agricultural areas. Here a, developed society was emerging, and rulers used their, wealth to create powerful states., The rise of Rajput clans to the position of rulers set, an example for the tribal people to follow. Gradually,, with the support of the Brahmanas, many tribes, became part of the caste system. But only the leading, tribal families could join the ruling class. A large, majority joined the lower jatis of caste society. On the, other hand, many dominant tribes of Punjab, Sind and, the North-West Frontier had adopted Islam quite early., They continued to reject the caste system. The unequal, social order, prescribed by orthodox Hinduism, was, not widely accepted in these areas., The emergence of states is closely related to social, change amongst tribal people. Two examples of this, important part of our history are described below., , A Closer Look, The Gonds, The Gonds lived in a vast forested region called, Gondwana – or “country inhabited by Gonds”. They, practised shifting cultivation. The large Gond tribe, was further divided into many smaller clans. Each clan, had its own raja or rai. About the time that the power, of the Delhi Sultans was declining, a few large Gond, kingdoms were beginning to dominate the smaller, Gond chiefs. The Akbar Nama, a history of Akbar’s, reign, mentions the Gond kingdom of Garha Katanga, that had 70,000 villages., , Fig. 5, A Gond woman., , Shifting, cultivation, Trees and bushes, in a forest area, are first cut and, burnt. The crop is, sown in the, ashes. When this, land loses its, fertility, another, plot of land is, cleared and, planted in the, same way., , The administrative system of these kingdoms was, becoming centralised. The kingdom was divided into, 97, 2021-22, , TRIBES, NOMADS AND, SETTLED COMMUNITIES

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Garha Katanga was a rich state. It earned much, wealth by trapping and exporting wild elephants to other, kingdoms. When the Mughals defeated the Gonds, they, captured a huge booty of precious coins and elephants., They annexed part of the kingdom and granted the rest, to Chandra Shah, an uncle of Bir Narain. Despite the, fall of Garha Katanga, the Gond kingdoms survived for, some time. However, they became much weaker and, later struggled unsuccessfully against the stronger, Bundelas and Marathas., , ?, Discuss why the, Mughals were, interested in the, land of the Gonds., , The Ahoms, The Ahoms migrated to the Brahmaputra valley from, present-day Myanmar in the thirteenth century. They, created a new state by suppressing the older political, system of the bhuiyans (landlords). During the, sixteenth century, they annexed the kingdoms of the, Chhutiyas (1523) and of Koch-Hajo (1581) and, subjugated many other tribes. The Ahoms built a large, state, and for this they used firearms as early as the, 1530s. By the 1660s they could even make highquality gunpowder and cannons., However, the Ahoms faced many invasions from the, south-west. In 1662, the, Mughals under Mir Jumla, attacked the Ahom kingdom., Despite their brave defence, the, Ahoms were defeated. But, direct Mughal control over the, region could not last long., , Map 3, Tribes of eastern, India., , The Ahom state depended, upon forced labour. Those, forced to work for the state were, called paiks. A census of the, population was taken. Each, village had to send a number, of paiks by rotation. People, from heavily populated areas, were shifted to less populated, 99, 2021-22, , TRIBES, NOMADS AND, SETTLED COMMUNITIES

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places. Ahom clans were thus broken up. By the first, half of the seventeenth century the administration, became quite centralised., Almost all adult males served in the army during, war. At other times, they were engaged in building, dams, irrigation systems and other public works. The, Ahoms also introduced new methods of rice cultivation., , Fig. 7, Ear ornaments, Koboi, Naga tribe, Manipur., , Ahom society was divided into clans or khels. There, were very few castes of artisans, so artisans in the, Ahom areas came from the adjoining kingdoms. A khel, often controlled several villages. The peasant was given, land by his village community. Even the king could, not take it away without the community’s consent., Originally, the Ahoms worshipped their own tribal, gods. During the first half of the seventeenth century,, however, the influence of Brahmanas increased., Temples and Brahmanas were granted land by the, king. In the reign of Sib Singh (1714-1744), Hinduism, became the predominant religion. But the Ahom, kings did not completely give up their traditional, beliefs after adopting Hinduism., , ?, , Ahom society was very sophisticated. Poets and, scholars were given land grants. Theatre was, encouraged. Important works of Sanskrit were, translated into the local language. Historical works,, known as buranjis, were also written – first in the Ahom, language and then in Assamese., , Why do you think, the Mughals tried, to conquer the, land of the, Ahoms?, , Conclusion, Considerable social change took place in the, subcontinent during the period we have been examining., Varna-based society and tribal people constantly, interacted with each other. This interaction caused both, kinds of societies to adapt and change. There were many, different tribes and they took up diverse livelihoods., Over a period of time, many of them merged with castebased society. Others, however, rejected both the caste, system and orthodox Hinduism. Some tribes established, OUR PASTS, , –, , II, , 100, 2021-22

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extensive states with well-organised systems of, administration. They thus became politically powerful., This brought them into conflict with larger and more, complex kingdoms and empires., , ELSEWHERE, , The Mongols, Find Mongolia in your atlas. The best-known pastoral and huntergatherer tribe in history were the Mongols. They inhabited the, grasslands (steppes) of Central Asia and the forested areas further, north. By 1206 Genghis Khan had united the Mongol and Turkish, tribes into a powerful military force. At the time of his death (1227), he was the ruler of extensive territories. His successors created a, vast empire. At different points of time, it included parts of Russia,, Eastern Europe and also China and much of West Asia. The Mongols, had well-organised military and administrative systems. These were, based on the support of different ethnic and religious groups., , Imagine, , You are a member of a nomadic, community that shifts residence every, three months. How would this change, your life?, , Let’s recall, 1. Match the following:, garh, , khel, , tanda, , chaurasi, , labourer, , caravan, , clan, , Garha Katanga, , Sib Singh, , Ahom state, , Durgawati, , paik, 101, 2021-22, , TRIBES, NOMADS AND, SETTLED COMMUNITIES

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2. Fill in the blanks:, , KEYWORDS, , 6, varna, , (a), , The new castes emerging within varnas were, called ____________., , (b), , _____________ were historical works written by the, Ahoms., , (c), , The ____________ mentions that Garha Katanga, had 70,000 villages., , (d), , As tribal states became bigger and stronger, they, gave land grants to _________ and ________., , jati, tanda, garh, chaurasi, barhot, , 3. State whether true or false:, , bhuiyans, paik, khel, , (a), , Tribal societies had rich oral traditions., , (b), , There were no tribal communities in the northwestern part of the subcontinent., , (c), , The chaurasi in Gond states contained several, cities., , (d), , The Bhils lived in the north-eastern part of the, subcontinent., , buranji, census, , 5, , 4. What kinds of exchanges took place between nomadic, pastoralists and settled agriculturists?, , Let’s understand, 5., , How was the administration of the Ahom state, organised?, , 6. What changes took place in varna-based society?, OUR PASTS, , –, , II, , 102, 2021-22

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7. How did tribal societies change after being organised, into a state?, , Let’s discuss, 8. Were the Banjaras important for the economy?, 9. In what ways was the history of the Gonds different, from that of the Ahoms? Were there any similarities?, , Let’s do, 10. Plot the location of the tribes mentioned in this chapter, on a map. For any two, discuss whether their mode, of livelihood was suited to the geography and the, environment of the area where they lived., 11. Find out about present-day government policies, towards tribal populations and organise a discussion, about these., 12. Find out more about present-day nomadic pastoral, groups in the subcontinent. What animals do they, keep? Which are the areas frequented by these, groups?, , 103, 2021-22, , TRIBES, NOMADS AND, SETTLED COMMUNITIES