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* Schleiden and Schwann together formulated the cell, theory., , ¢ Rudolf Virchow (1855) first explained that cells divided, and new cells are formed from pre-existing cells (Omnis, cellula-e cellula). He hypothesized:, , > All living organisms are composed of cells, andproducts of cells., , © Allcells arise from pre-existing cells., , An Overview of Cell, , ¢ Eukaryotic cells: Have membrane bound nuclei, * Prokaryotic cells: Lack a membrane bound nucleus, , * Ribosomes are found not only in the cytoplasm but also, within the two organelles — chloroplasts (in plants) and, mitochondria and on rough ER., , * Mycoplasmas: Smallest cells (0.3 bm in length), * Egg of ostrich: Largest isolated single cell, , + Represented by bacteria, blue-green algae, mycoplasma, and PPLO (Pleuro Pneumonia like organisms)., , Plasmid: Small circular DNAoutside the genomic DNA., , Mesosome: A’ specialized differentiated form of cell, membrane. They are infoldings of cell membrane., , Cell Envelope and Its Modifications, , 6 Consists of'a tightly bourid three layered structure ice.,, i} glye ocalyx, cellwall and, the plasma membrane., , “. Glycocalyx loose sheath called the slime layer, while, Raa y Gs it tik and tough, called the capsule., , -. pay and Fimbriae: S' tructures known to help, , , , , , , , , , , 5 an, , , , Ribosomes and inclusion Bodies, , * Several ribosomes may attach to a single mRNA hd, form a chain called polyribosomes or polysomes., , * Reserve material in prokaryotic cells is stored inf, cytoplasm in the form of inclusion bodies., , Eukaryotic cells, * Include all the protists, plants. animals and fungi., , Cell membrane, , Fluid mosaic model of plasma membrane was proposed, by Singer and Nicholson (1972). According to this modél, lipids and proteins are arranged in mosaic fashion., , They have described this model as “protein iceberg in a set, of lipids” ;, , According to the fluid mosaic model ae, , « The plasma membrane is composed of a lipid bilayer), of phospholipid molecules into which a variety. 0}, globular proteins are embedded., , , , , * Each phospholipid. molecule has two ends, a, outer head hydrophilic, i.e., water attracting, am, the inner tail pointing centrally hydrophobic,, water repelling. ;, , , , , , , , * The lipid component of the membrane m ee, consists of phosphoglycerides. Pas, , ~ The ratio of protein and lipid varies considerably ;, different cell types. Bae, , * The protein molecules are arranged. in, different ways: Ne, , (a) Peripheral proteins or extrinsic protel, These proteins are present on the outer 4, inner surfaces of lipid bilayer. : J, , (b) Integral. proteins or intrinsic proteil, These proteins penetrate lipid bilayer partial, or wholly, Hen Ma, , 1s, , , , ethyl ee

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pctions, y the plasma membrane encloses the cell contents, {i ., , f provides cell shape (in animal cells) Cg. the, , UN anacteristic shape of red blood cells, nerve cells, bone, cells, et, , (iq) eallows transport of certain substances into and out, , of the cell but not all substance, so it is termed selectively, , permeable., , , , yyTransport of small molecules (such as glucose, amino, scids, water, mineral ions etc.), , jethods of cell transport, , , , Passive transport i, , __| Astiveransport. |, Requires energy in the, form of ATP, , Transport of molecules is, against the concentration, , , , sno expenditure of, , , , Transport of molecules is, , down the concentration, , gradient, ic. from high to | gradient, ic, from, ‘ow region of concentration. | low to high region of, concentration., , , , Two types:, + Diffusion; E.g., absorption, , , , , , , glucose, , The active transport may, also through a carrier, molecule., , + Osmosis: Occurs through a |, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , emipermeable membrane., rer, , * A non-living rigid structure called the cell wall forms, outer covering for the plasma membrane of fungi, lants. Bacteria and Protista., Functions of cell wall, * Cell wall gives shape to the cell, tects the cell from mechanical damage and infection, elps in cell-to-cell interaction and provides barrier to, Undesirable macromolecules., © cell wall of a young plant cell, the primary wall is, uble of growth, which gradually diminishes as the, | matures and the secondary wall is formed on the, t eer (towards membrane) side of the cell., “Position, , \igae: Cellulose, galactans, mannans and minerals like, Sale um curbonate., ’ 9 Cellulose, hemicellulose, pectins and proteins, , Middle tamelta: Mainly. of calcium pectare; holds the, , The endomembrane system include endoplasmic reticulum, (ER), golgi complex, lysosomes and vacuoles., , * The endoplasmic reticulum is a double unit membrane, structure spread all over the cell and occurs in three, morphological forms viz, cisternae, vesicles and, tubules., , * In muscles, they are known as Sacroplasmic reticulum., , RSM OE eat, ‘Types of Endoplasmic reticulum, , | SmoothER | Rough ER, , No Ribosomes on their| Bearing ribosomes on |, surface. their surface., , Continuous with the outer, membrane of the nucleus., , , , , , Function: Major site for, synthesis of lipid, synthesis, of lipid-like steroidal, hormones in animal cells., , , , Function: Protein synthesis, and secretion, , Ln, , , , , , * Golgi apparatus was discovered by Camillo Golgi ( 1898), while studying the nerve cell in owl., , © They consist of many flat, disc-shaped sacs or cisternac, of 0.5nm to 1.0um diameter, , * Cisternae are stacked parallel to cach other., , © The Golgi cisternae are concentrically arranged near the, nucleus with distinct convex cis or the forming face and, concave trans or the maturing face., , » Materials to be packaged in the form of vesicles from, the ER fuse with the cis face of the golgi apparatus, and move towards the maturing face. This explains,, why the golgi apparatus remains in close association, with the endoplasmic teticulum., , Functions, + Sort and package materials, (0 be delivered either to the, intracellular targets oF secreted outside the cell., * Modify ribosomal proteins in the cisternae before they, are released from its tans face., , * Site of formation of glycoproteins and glycolipids,

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* Lysosomes are the animal cell's digestive organelles., , contains hydrolases - lipases, proteases,, , Lysosomes, , , , dimagatnatca) SO TT, , Help in cleaning up the cell by digesting damaged, material of the cell, , * When cells are old, discased or injured, lysosomes attack, , their cell organelles and digest them. In other words, lysosomes are autophagic, i.c,, self devouring., , Meaty od, , * The vacuole is the membrane-bound space found in the, cytoplasm,, , * It contains water, sap, excretory product and other, materials not useful for the cell,, , * The vacuole is bound by single membrane called, Tonoplast., , * In plant cells, the vacuoles can occupy up to 96 percent, of the volume of the cell., , * In plants, the tonoplast facilitates the transport of a, , number of ions and other materials against concentration, ients inte the vacuole, hence their concentration is, , , , Plastids are found only in a plant cell and euglenvids. They may be colourless or with colour,, , Based on the type of pigments, there are three types of plastids., , , , , , , , , , , , , significantly higher in the vacuole than in the ytopIas,, In Amoeba, contractile vacuole is important for CXcretiee, In protists, food vacuoles are formed by engulfing 4,, food, , Double membrane-bound structure, , The outer membrane and the inner membrane divin,, itslumen distinctly into two aqueous compartments, j_., the outer and the inner compartment., , The inner compartment is called the matrix,, , The outer membrane forms the continuous limiting, boundary of the organelle, , Cristae: Infoldingsin the inner membrane towm:, thematrix; increase the surface area., , The matrix possesses single circular DNA molecule, ribosomes (70S) and the components required for ti,, synthesis of proteins., , Mitochondria are the sites of aerobic respiration. They, produce cellular energy in the form of ATP; hence they, are called ‘power houses’ of the cell, , Acid fuchsin (Triaminotriphenyl methane rosanilinet, It stains parenchyma, cortex, cellulose walls ad, mitochondria., , , , Leucoplast, Whi olourless, Their shapes and sizes varies with, , , , Contains — fat, stored nutrients:, + Amyloplasts, , {starch}, ¢.g., potato., , store carbohydrates, , Elaloplasts store oils and fats, ¢.z.., , , , oil seed, , Aleuroplasts store proteins, ©., maize l 7, Chloroplast, , + Chloroplasts of the green plants are found in the, , mesophyll cells of the leaves., , =.These are lens-shaped, oval, spherical, discoid or even, on-like organelles having variable length (5-10 am), and width (2-4 pm)., , , , , , Chromoplast, Blue, red, or yellow, soluble, , pigments like carotene, xanthophylls, , 3 Chloroplast 2], Green |, Contains chlorophyll and carotenoid, pigments whichare responsible fo, trapping light energy essential fot, photosynthesis., , , , , , carotenoid, , ——e, * Like mitochondria, the chloroplasts are also dosti, membrane bound., , , , * The inner chloroplast membrane is relatively [6°, penneable,, , * The space limited by the inner membrane of, chloroplast is called the stroma.

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number of organised flattened, , membranous sg, alle the thylakoids, are present in ay, , , , The membrane of the thylakoids enclose a space called, , lumen., , he stroma of the chloroplast contains enzymes required, for the synthesis of carbohydrates and proteins., , t also contains small, double-stranded circular DNA, Molecules and ribosomes., , hlorophyltl pigments are present in the thylakoids., , he nhosomes of the chloroplasts are smaller (70S) than, sloplasmic ribosomes (80S)., , , , , , , Ute, , bosomes are the granular structures first observed, der the electron microscope as dense particles by, orge Palade (1953)., , y ure composed of ribonucleic acid (RNA) and, oteins and are not surrounded by any membrane,, , are 80S while the prokaryotic, , k, f, ', , F, f, i, , , , , , , , , An claborate network of filamentous proteinaccous structures, , _ Cytoskeleton,, , F Functions of, , 3 * Mechanical support, , 3 Motility, , spe Maintenance of the shape of the cell., , Cilia and Flagella, , , , , , , , , , , , Cilia are small structures causing the movement of cell or, the surrounding fluid,, , Flagella are comparatively longer and responsible for, cell movement., , The electron microscopic study shows that they are, covered with plasma membrane, , Axoneme: The core of ciliwflagella, containing, microtubules running parallel to the long axis., , 9 +2 array: An arrangement of axonemal microtubules, contains nine pairs of doublets of radially arranged, Peripheral microtubules, and a pair of centrally located, microtubules., , The central tubules are connected by bridges and are, enclosed by central sheath, which is connected to one of, the tubules of each peripheral doublet by a radial spoke., , Thus, there are nine radial spokes,, , The peripheral doublets are also interconnected by, linkers., , Centrosomes and Centrio, , Present in the cytoplasm is collectively referred to as the xy, , Centrosome is an organelle usually containing two, cylindrical structures called centrioles., , They are surrounded by amorphous pericentriolar, matenals, Both the centrioles in a centrosome tie, perpendicular to each other in which each has an, organisation like the cartwheel, , , , , , , , , , , , They are made up of nine evenly spaced peripheral fibrils, of tubulin protein,, , Each of the peripheral fibril is a triplet. The adjacent, triplets are also linked., , ‘The central part of the proximal region of the centriole is, also proteinaceous and called the hub, which is connected, with tubules of the peripheral triplets by radial spokes, made of protein., , The centrioles from the basal body of cilia or flagella, and, spindle fibres that five rise to spindle apparatus during, cell division in animal cells,, , , , , , Nucleus as a cell organelle was first described by, Brown (1831)., , The nucleus stained by the basic dyes was given the nan, chromatin by Flemming. 5 “, , Basic fuchsin is used to stain DNA., , Feulgen reagent devised by Feulgen and Rossenbeck., stains nucleic acid of chromosome,, , Acetocarmine stain nucleus.

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aioe nucleus (nucleus of a cell when it is not, , Shee eatieg ighly extended and elaborate nucleoprotein, : chromatin, nuclear matrix and one or more, , spherical bodies called nucleoli (sing: nucleolus),, , a microscopy has revealed that the nuclear, velope, which consists of two parallel membranes with, 4 space between (10 to $0 nn) called the perinuclear, Space, forms a barrier between the materials present, inside the nucleus and that of the cytoplasm., , * The outer membrane usually remains continuous with, , _ endoplasmic reticulum and also bears ribosomes on, mh, , * Nuclear pores are the passages through which movement, of RNA and protein molecules takes place in both, , , , , , , , , , , , directions between the nucleus and the, , The nuclear matrix oF the nucleoplasm, nucleolus and chromatin. ‘, Nucleolus is a site for active ribosomal RNA sy;, Larger and more numerous nucleoli are p csent, actively carrying out protein synthesis., Chromatin contains DNA and some basic pro, histones, some non-histone proteins and also RI Ni, A single human cell has approximately two metn, thread of DNA distributed among its forty six, three pairs) chromosomes., , Every chromosome essentially has primary cons, ‘or the centromere on the sides of which disc si, structures called kinetochores are present. ,, , Based on the position of the centromere, the chromosomes can be classified into four types:, , , , Metacentric, , Sub-metacentric, , Acrocentric, , Telocentric, , , , A middle — centro, mere forms two, equal arms of the, chromosome,, , Centromere slightly, away from the, middle of the, chromosome, , resulting info one, shorter arm and one, , Centromere is, situated close to, its end forming, one — extremely, short and one, very long arm, , Chromosome has, terminal centromere, , longer arm, , , , , , , , , , , , , , * Sometimes a few chromosomes have non-staining secondary constrictions at a constant location, This gives the appearat, , of a small fragment called the satellite,