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A PICTURE IS WORTH A, THOUSAND WORDS, , 3., THE DELHI SULTANS, (fnYyh lqyrku)

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OVERVIEW ?, 1., 2., , 3., 4., , 5., , 6., , THE RULERS OF DELHI, FINDING OUT ABOUT THE DELHI SULTANS, FROM GARRISON TOWN TO EMPIRE:, THE EXPANSION OF THE DELHI SULTANATE, A CLOSER LOOK:, ADMINISTRATION AND CONSOLIDATION, UNDER THE KHALJIS AND TUGHLUQS, OFFICIALS OF SULTAN MUHAMMAD TUGHLUQ, THE SULTANATE IN THE 15TH AND 16TH CENTURIES

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● Delhi became an important city only in the twelfth century, , ● Delhi first became the capital of a kingdom under the Tomara Rajputs,, , ●, ●, ●, ●, , who were defeated in the middle of the twelfth century by the, Chauhans (also referred to as Chahamanas) of Ajmer., It was under the Tomaras and Chauhans that Delhi became an, important commercial centre., Many rich Jaina merchants lived in the city and constructed several, temples., Coins minted here, called dehliwal, had a wide circulation, The transformation of Delhi into a capital that controlled vast areas of, the subcontinent started with the foundation of the Delhi Sultanate in, the beginning of the thirteenth century.

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THE RULERS OF DELHI

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THE RULERS OF DELHI

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FINDING OUT ABOUT THE DELHI SULTANS, ➢ Although inscriptions, coins and architecture provide a lot of information,, especially valuable are “histories”, tarikh (singular)/tawarikh (plural), written in, Persian, the language of administration under the Delhi Sultans., ➢ The authors of tawarikh were learned men:, secretaries,, administrators,, poets and, courtiers,, who both recounted events and advised rulers on governance, emphasising the, importance of just rule.

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THE CIRCLE OF JUSTICE (U;k;&pØ), ➢ Fakhr-i Mudabbir wrote in the thirteenth century:, ➢ A king cannot survive without soldiers. And soldiers cannot live, , without salaries., ➢ Salaries come from the revenue collected from peasants. But, peasants can pay revenue only when they are prosperous and, happy., ➢ This happens when the king promotes justice and honest, governance.

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FINDING OUT ABOUT THE DELHI SULTANS, ➢ The authors of tawarikh lived in cities (mainly Delhi) and hardly ever, , in villages., ➢ They often wrote their histories for Sultans in the hope of rich, , rewards, ➢ These authors advised rulers on the need to preserve an “ideal”, , social order based on birthright and gender distinctions., ➢ Their ideas were not shared by everybody.

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➢ BIRTHRIGHT :-, , Privileges claimed on account of birth., For example, people believed that nobles inherited their rights to, govern, because they were born in certain families., ➢ GENDER DISTINCTIONS, , Social and biological differences between women and men. Usually,, these differences are used to argue that men are superior to women.

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➢ In 1236 Sultan Iltutmish’s daughter, Raziyya, became Sultan., ➢ The chronicler of the age, Minhaj-i Siraj, recognised that she was more, , able and qualified than all her brothers., ➢ But he was not comfortable at having a queen as ruler. Nor were the, nobles happy at her attempts to rule independently., ➢ She was removed from the, throne in 1240.

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WHAT MINHAJ-I SIRAJ THOUGHT ABOUT RAZIYYA, ➢ Minhaj-i Siraj thought that the queen’s rule went against the ideal social, , order created by God, in which women were supposed to be, subordinate to men., ➢ He therefore asked:, “In the register of God’s creation, since her account did not fall under the, column of men, how did she gain from all of her excellent qualities?”, ➢ On her inscriptions and coins Raziyya mentioned that she was the, daughter of Sultan Iltutmish. This was in contrast to the queen, Rudramadevi (1262- 1289), of the Kakatiya dynasty of Warangal,, part of modern Andhra Pradesh.

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WHAT MINHAJ-I SIRAJ THOUGHT ABOUT RAZIYYA, ➢ Rudramadevi changed her name on her inscriptions and, , pretended she was a man., ➢ Another queen, Didda, ruled in Kashmir (980- 1003). Her, , title is interesting: it comes from “didi” or “elder sister”,, an obviously affectionate term given to a loved ruler by, her subjects.

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FROM GARRISON TOWN TO EMPIRE:, THE EXPANSION OF THE DELHI SULTANATE, , ➢ Major cities captured by, , Shamsuddin Iltutmish.

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FROM GARRISON TOWN TO EMPIRE:, THE EXPANSION OF THE DELHI SULTANATE, ➢ In the early thirteenth century the control of the Delhi Sultans rarely, , went beyond heavily fortified towns occupied by garrisons., ➢ The Sultans seldom controlled the hinterland of the cities and were, therefore dependent upon trade, tribute or plunder for supplies., ➢ Controlling garrison towns in distant Bengal and Sind from Delhi was, extremely difficult., ➢ Rebellion, war, even bad weather could snap fragile communication, routes. Delhi’s authority was also challenged by Mongol invasions, from Afghanistan and by governors who rebelled at any sign of the, Sultan’s weakness.

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FROM GARRISON TOWN TO EMPIRE:, THE EXPANSION OF THE DELHI SULTANATE, ➢ The Sultanate barely survived these challenges. Its consolidation, , occurred during the reign of Ghiyasuddin Balban and further expansion, under Alauddin Khalji and Muhammad Tughluq, ➢ Hinterland, , The lands adjacent to a city or port that supply it with goods and, services., ➢ Garrison town, A fortified settlement, with soldiers.

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FROM GARRISON TOWN TO EMPIRE(lkezkT;):, THE EXPANSION OF THE DELHI SULTANATE, ➢ The first set of campaigns along the “internal frontier” of the Sultanate, , aimed at consolidating the hinterlands of the garrison towns., ➢ During these campaigns forests were cleared in the Ganga-Yamuna, doab and hunter gatherers and pastoralists expelled from their habitat., ➢ These lands were given to peasants and agriculture was encouraged., , New fortresses, garrison towns and towns were established to protect, trade routes and to promote regional trade.

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FROM GARRISON TOWN TO EMPIRE:, THE EXPANSION OF THE DELHI SULTANATE, ➢ The second expansion occurred along the “external frontier” of the, , Sultanate., ➢ Military expeditions into southern India started during the reign of, Alauddin Khalji and culminated with Muhammad Tughluq. In their, campaigns., ➢ Sultanate armies captured elephants, horses and slaves and carried, away precious metals.

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FROM GARRISON TOWN TO EMPIRE:, THE EXPANSION OF THE DELHI SULTANATE, ➢ By the end of Muhammad Tughluq’s reign, 150 years after somewhat, , humble beginnings, the armies of the Delhi Sultanate had marched, across a large part of the subcontinent. They had defeated rival, armies and seized cities., ➢ The Sultanate collected taxes from the peasantry and dispensed, , justice in its realm.

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Quwwat al-Islam mosque and, minaret, built during the last, decade of the twelfth century., This was the congregational, mosque of the first city built by, the Delhi Sultans, described in, the chronicles as Dehli-iKuhna, (the old city). The mosque was, enlarged by Iltutmish and, Alauddin Khalji., The minar was built by 2 Sultans:, Qutbuddin Aybak and Iltutmish.

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THE MASJID, ➢, , ➢, , ➢, , A mosque is called a masjid in Arabic, literally a place where a, Muslim prostrates in reverence to Allah. In a “congregational, mosque” (masjid-i-jami or jama masjid) Muslims read their prayers, (namaz) together., , Members of the congregation choose the most respected, learned, male as their leader (imam) for the rituals of prayer. He also delivers, the sermon (khutba) during the Friday prayer., During prayer, Muslims stand facing Mecca. In India this is to the, west. This is called the qibla.

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Begumpuri mosque, built in the reign of Muhammad Tughluq, was, the main mosque of Jahanpanah, the “Sanctuary of the World”, his, new capital in Delhi.

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➢, , ➢, , ➢, , The Delhi Sultans built several mosques in cities all over the, subcontinent. These demonstrated their claims to be, protectors of Islam and Muslims., Mosques also helped to create the sense of a community of, believers who shared a belief system and a code of conduct., It was necessary to reinforce this idea of a community, because Muslims came from a variety of backgrounds

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A CLOSER LOOK:, ADMINISTRATION AND CONSOLIDATION, (iz'kklu vkSj lesdu), UNDER THE KHALJIS AND TUGHLUQS, ➢, , ➢, , Rather than appointing aristocrats and landed chieftains as, governors, the early Delhi Sultans, especially Iltutmish, favoured, their special slaves purchased for military service, called, BANDAGAN in Persian., They were carefully trained to man some of the most important, political offices in the kingdom. Since they were totally dependent, upon their master, the Sultan could trust and rely upon them.

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SLAVES RATHER THAN SONS, ➢, , The Sultans were advised:, , A slave, whom one has brought up and promoted, must be, looked after for it needs a whole lifetime and good luck to, find a worthy and experienced slave., Wise men have said that a worthy and experienced slave is, better than a son …

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➢ The Khaljis and Tughluqs continued to use bandagan and also raised, , people of humble birth, who were often their clients, to high political, positions. They were appointed as generals and governors. However,, this also introduced an element of political instability., ➢ Client (vkfJr) :-, , Someone who is under the protection of another;, a dependent or hanger-on

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➢ Slaves and clients were loyal to their masters and patrons, but not to, , their heirs. New Sultans had their own servants., ➢ As a result the accession of a new monarch often saw conflict, between the old and the new nobility., ➢ The patronage of these humble people by the Delhi Sultans also, , shocked many elites and the authors of Persian tawarikh criticised, the Delhi Sultans for appointing the “low and base-born” to high, offices.

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➢ Like the earlier Sultans, the Khalji and Tughluq monarchs appointed, , military commanders as governors of territories of varying sizes. These, lands were called iqta and their holder was called iqtadar or muqti., ➢ The duty of the muqtis was to lead military campaigns and maintain law, , and order in their iqtas. In exchange for their military services, the muqtis, collected the revenues of their assignments as salary. They also paid, their soldiers from these revenues., ➢ Control over muqtis was most effective if their office was not inheritable, , and if they were assigned iqtas for a short period of time before being, shifted. These harsh conditions of service were rigorously imposed during, the reigns of Alauddin Khalji and Muhammad Tughluq

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➢ Accountants were appointed by the state to check the amount of, , revenue collected by the muqtis. Care was taken that the muqti, collected only the taxes prescribed by the state and that he kept the, required number of soldiers., ➢ As the Delhi Sultans brought the hinterland of the cities under their, , control, they forced the landed chieftains –, the samanta aristocrats – and, rich landlords, to accept their authority.

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➢ Under Alauddin Khalji the state brought the assessment and collection of, , land revenue under its own control. The rights of the local chieftains to, levy taxes were cancelled and they were also forced to pay taxes., ➢ The Sultan’s administrators measured the land and kept careful, accounts. Some of the old chieftains and landlords served the Sultanate, as revenue collectors and assessors., ➢ There were three types of taxes:, (1) on cultivation called kharaj and amounting to about 50 per cent of the, , peasant’s produce,, (2) on cattle and, (3) on houses

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➢ Large parts of the subcontinent remained outside the control of the, , Delhi Sultans. It was difficult to control distant provinces like Bengal, from Delhi and soon after annexing southern India, the entire region, became independent., ➢ Even in the Gangetic plain there were forested areas that Sultanate, forces could not penetrate. Local chieftains established their rule in, these regions., ➢ Sometimes rulers like Alauddin Khalji and Muhammad Tughluq could, force their control in these areas but only for a short duration.

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CHIEFTAINS AND THEIR FORTIFICATIONS, ➢ Ibn Battuta, a fourteenth-century traveller from Morocco, Africa,, , explained that chieftains sometimes fortified themselves in mountains, in, rocky, uneven and rugged places as well as in bamboo groves., ➢ In India the bamboo is not hollow; it is big. Its several parts are so, intertwined that even fire cannot affect them, and they are on the whole, very strong., ➢ The chieftains live in these forests which serve them as ramparts, inside, which are their cattle and their crops., ➢ There is also water for them within, that is, rain water which collects, there. Hence they cannot be subdued except by powerful armies, who, entering these forests, cut down the bamboos with specially prepared, instruments

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➢ The Mongols under Genghis Khan invaded Transoxiana in north-, , east Iran in 1219 and the Delhi Sultanate faced their onslaught, soon after., ➢ Mongol attacks on the Delhi Sultanate increased during the reign, , of Alauddin Khalji and in the early years of Muhammad Tughluq’s, rule., ➢ This forced the two rulers to mobilise a large standing army in, Delhi which posed a huge administrative challenge.

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Muhammad Tughluq’s failures we sometimes forget that for the first, time in the history of the Sultanate, a Delhi Sultan planned a, campaign to capture Mongol territory. Unlike Alauddin’s defensive, measures, Muhammad Tughluq’s measures were conceived as a part, of a military offensive against the Mongols.

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THE SULTANATE IN THE, FIFTEENTH AND SIXTEENTH CENTURIES, ➢ After the Tughluqs, the Sayyid and Lodi dynasties ruled from Delhi and, , Agra until 1526., ➢ By then, Jaunpur, Bengal, Malwa, Gujarat, Rajasthan and the entire south, India had independent rulers who established flourishing states and, prosperous capitals., ➢ This was also the period which saw the emergence of new ruling groups, like the Afghans and the Rajputs., ➢ Some of the states established in this period were small but powerful, and extremely well administered.

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THE SULTANATE IN THE, FIFTEENTH AND SIXTEENTH CENTURIES, ➢ Sher Shah Sur (1540-1545) started his career as the manager of a small, , territory for his uncle in Bihar and eventually challenged and defeated, the Mughal emperor Humayun (1530-1540, 1555-1556). Sher Shah, captured Delhi and established his own dynasty., ➢ Although the Sur dynasty ruled for only fifteen years (1540-1555), it, introduced an administration that borrowed elements from Alauddin, Khalji and made them more efficient., ➢ Sher Shah’s administration became the model followed by the great, emperor Akbar (1556-1605) when he consolidated the Mughal Empire.

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THE “THREE ORDERS”, THE “PEACE OF GOD”,, KNIGHTS AND THE CRUSADES, ^rhu Jsf.k;k¡*] ^bZ'ojh; 'kakfr*] ukbV vkSj /eZ;q), ➢ The idea of the “Three Orders” was first formulated in France in the, , early eleventh century. It divided society into three classes:, those who prayed,, those who fought, and, those who tilled the land., This division of society into “Three Orders” was supported by the Church, to consolidate its dominant role in society. This helped the emergence, of a new warrior group called Knights

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➢ The Church patronised this group and used them to propagate their idea, ➢, , ➢, , ➢, , ➢, , of “Peace of God”., The attempt was to direct warriors away from conflict amongst, themselves and send them instead on a campaign against the Muslims, who had captured the city of Jerusalem., This led to a series of campaigns called the Crusades. These campaigns, in the service of God and the Church completely altered the status of, Knights., Originally, these Knights did not belong to the class of nobles. But by the, end of the eleventh century in France, and a century later in Germany,, the humble origins of these warriors were forgotten., By the twelfth century, nobles also wanted to be known as Knights.

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TAKEAWAYS, What were the steps taken to ensure that, muqtis performed their duties? Why do you, think they may have wanted to defy the orders, of the Sultans?, , What was the impact of the Mongol invasions, on the Delhi Sultanate?

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THANKS !