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OVERVIEW ?, 1., 2., , 3., 4., 5., , 6., 7., , ADMINISTRATIVE CENTRES, TEMPLE TOWNS AND PILGRIMAGE CENTRES, A NETWORK OF SMALL TOWNS, TRADERS BIG AND SMALL, CRAFTS IN TOWNS, A CLOSER LOOK: HAMPI, MASULIPATNAM AND SURAT, NEW TOWNS AND TRADERS

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● Some important centres of, , trade and artisanal production, in central and south India.

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ADMINISTRATIVE CENTRES iz'kklfud Dsan, ➢ THANJAVUR, THE CAPITAL OF THE CHOLAS ( A THOUSAND YEARS AGO)., ➢ The perennial river Kaveri flows near this beautiful town. One hears the bells of, the Rajarajeshvara temple built by King Rajaraja Chola. ( architect, Kunjaramallan Rajaraja Perunthachchan ) Inside is a massive Shiva linga., ➢ Besides the temple, there are palaces with mandapas or pavilions. Kings hold, court in these mandapas, issuing orders to their subordinates. There are also, barracks for the army, ➢ Water supply for the town comes from wells and tanks. The Saliya weavers of, Thanjavur and the nearby town of Uraiyur are busy producing cloth for flags to, be used in the temple festival, fine cottons for the king and nobility and coarse, cotton for the masses. Some distance away at Svamimalai, the sthapatis or, sculptors are making exquisite bronze idols and tall, ornamental bell metal, lamps.

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TEMPLE TOWNS AND PILGRIMAGE CENTRES, eafnj uxj vkSj rhFkZ Dsan, ➢ Temple towns represent a very important pattern of urbanisation,, , the process by which cities develop., ➢ Temples were often central to the economy and society., ➢ Rulers built temples to demonstrate their devotion to various, deities., ➢ They also endowed temples with grants of land and money to, carry out elaborate rituals, feed pilgrims and priests and celebrate, festivals. Pilgrims who flocked to the temples also made donations.

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TEMPLE TOWNS AND PILGRIMAGE CENTRES, ➢ Pilgrimage centres also slowly developed into townships., , Vrindavan (Uttar Pradesh) and Tiruvannamalai (Tamil Nadu) are, examples of two such towns., ➢ Ajmer (Rajasthan) was the capital of the Chauhan kings in the, twelfth century and later became the suba headquarters under the, Mughals., ➢ It provides an excellent example of religious coexistence., ➢ Khwaja Muinuddin Chishti, the celebrated Sufi saint who settled, there in the twelfth century, attracted devotees from all creeds., Near Ajmer is a lake, Pushkar, which has attracted pilgrims from, ancient times.

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BRONZE, BELL METAL AND THE “LOST WAX” TECHNIQUE, dk¡lk] ?kaVk&èkkrq vkSj ^yqIrekse* rduhd, ➢ Bronze is an alloy containing copper and, , tin., ➢ Bell metal contains a greater proportion, of tin than other kinds of bronze. This, produces a bell-like sound., , A bronze statue of Krishna, subduing the serpent demon Kaliya.

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➢ Chola bronze statues were made using the “lost wax”, , technique., ➢ First, an image was made of wax., , ➢ This was covered with clay and allowed to dry., ➢ Next it was heated, and a tiny hole was made in the clay, , cover., ➢ The molten wax was drained out through this hole., ➢ Then molten metal was poured into the clay mould through, the hole., ➢ Once the metal cooled and solidified, the clay cover was, carefully removed, and the image was cleaned and polished.

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A NETWORK OF SMALL TOWNS, NksVs uxjksa dk latky, ➢ From the eighth century onwards the subcontinent was dotted, , with several small towns. These probably emerged from large, villages. They usually had a mandapika (or mandi of later times), to which nearby villagers brought their produce to sell., ➢ They also had market streets called hatta (haat of later times), lined with shops., ➢ There were streets for different kinds of artisans such as, potters, oil pressers, sugar makers, toddy makers, smiths,, stonemasons, etc. While some traders lived in the town, others, travelled from town to town.

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➢ Many came from far and near to these towns to buy local articles, , and sell products of distant places like horses, salt, camphor, saffron,, betel nut and spices like pepper

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➢, , ➢, , ➢, , Usually a SAMANTA or, in later times, a ZAMINDAR built a, fortified palace in or near these towns., They levied taxes on traders, artisans and articles of trade and, sometimes “donated” the “right” to collect these taxes to local, temples, which had been built by themselves or by rich, merchants., These “rights” were recorded in inscriptions that have survived, to this day

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➢, ➢, , ➢, , ➢, , ➢, , TAXES ON MARKETS, The following is a summary from a tenth-century inscription from, Rajasthan, which lists the dues that were to be collected by temple, authorities:, There were taxes in kind on: Sugar and jaggery, dyes, thread, and, cotton, On coconuts, salt, areca nuts, butter, sesame oil, On cloth., Besides, there were taxes on traders, on those who sold metal, goods, on distillers, on oil, on cattle fodder, and on loads of grain., Some of these taxes were collected in kind, while others were, collected in cash.

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TRADERS BIG AND SMALL, , ➢, , ➢, , ➢, , There were many kinds of traders. These included the, Banjaras ., Several traders, especially horse traders, formed associations,, with headmen who negotiated on their behalf with warriors, who bought horses., Since traders had to pass through many kingdoms and forests,, they usually travelled in caravans and formed guilds to, protect their interests.

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➢, , ➢, , ➢, , There were several such guilds in south India from the eighth, century onwards – the most famous being the Manigramam, and Nanadesi., These guilds traded extensively both within the peninsula and, with Southeast Asia and China., , There were also communities like the Chettiars and the, Marwari Oswal who went on to become the principal trading, groups of the country.

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➢, , ➢, , ➢, , Gujarati traders, including the communities of Hindu Baniyas and, Muslim Bohras, traded extensively with the ports of the Red Sea,, Persian Gulf, East Africa, Southeast Asia and China., They sold textiles and spices in these ports and, in exchange,, brought gold and ivory from Africa; and spices, tin, Chinese blue, pottery and silver from Southeast Asia and China., The towns on the west coast were home to Arab, Persian, Chinese,, Jewish and Syrian Christian traders. Indian spices and cloth sold in, the Red Sea ports were purchased by Italian traders and eventually, reached European markets, fetching very high profits.

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➢, , Spices grown in tropical climates (pepper, cinnamon, nutmeg, dried, ginger, etc.) became an important part of European cooking, and, cotton cloth was very attractive. This eventually drew European, traders to India., , KABUL, Kabul With its rugged, mountainous landscape, Kabul (in present-day, Afghanistan) became politically and commercially important from, the sixteenth century onwards., Kabul and Qandahar were linked to the celebrated Silk Route.

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➢, , Besides, trade in horses was, primarily carried on through this, route. In the seventeenth century, Jean Baptiste Tavernier, a diamond, merchant, estimated that the, horse trade at Kabul amounted to, Rs 30,000 annually, which was a, huge sum in those days. Camels, carried dried fruits, dates, carpets,, silks and even fresh fruits from, Kabul to the subcontinent and, elsewhere. Slaves were also, brought here for sale.

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CRAFTS IN TOWNS uxjksa esa f'kYi, ➢ The craftspersons of Bidar were so famed for their inlay work in copper, ➢, , ➢, ➢, ➢, , and silver that it came to be called Bidri., The Panchalas or Vishwakarma community, consisting of goldsmiths,, bronzesmiths, blacksmiths, masons and carpenters, were essential to the, building of temples., They also played an important role in the construction of palaces, big, buildings, tanks and reservoirs., Similarly, weavers such as the Saliyar or Kaikkolars emerged as, prosperous communities, making donations to temples., Some aspects of cloth making like cotton cleaning, spinning and dyeing, became specialised and independent crafts.

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➢ A seventeenth century candlestand ;, , brass with black overlay, , ➢ A shawl border.

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THE CHANGING FORTUNES OF TOWNS, ➢ Some towns like Ahmedabad (Gujarat) went on to become major, , commercial cities but others like Thanjavur shrank in size and, importance over the centuries., ➢ Murshidabad (West Bengal) on the banks of the Bhagirathi, which, rose to prominence as a centre for silks and became the capital of, Bengal in 1704, declined in the course of the century as the weavers, faced competition from cheap mill-made cloth from England.

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A CLOSER LOOK:, HAMPI, MASULIPATNAM AND SURAT, ➢, , THE ARCHITECTURAL SPLENDOUR OF HAMPI, gEih dh okLrqdyk dk lkSan;, , ➢ Hampi is located in the Krishna-Tungabhadra basin, which formed the, , nucleus of the Vijayanagara Empire, founded in 1336., ➢ The magnificent ruins at Hampi reveal a well-fortified city., ➢ No mortar or cementing agent was used in the construction of these, walls and the technique followed was to wedge them together by, interlocking.

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➢ A view of the watchtower through a, , broken wall of the enclosure of, Hampi.

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➢ The architecture of Hampi was distinctive. The buildings in the royal, , complex had splendid arches, domes and pillared halls with niches for, holding sculptures., ➢ They also had well-planned orchards and pleasure gardens with, sculptural motifs such as the lotus and corbels., ➢ In its heyday in the fifteenthsixteenth centuries, Hampi bustled with, commercial and cultural activities., ➢ Muslim merchants, Chettis and agents of European traders such as the, Portuguese, thronged the markets of Hampi., ➢ Temples were the hub of cultural activities and devadasis (temple, , dancers) performed before the deity, royalty and masses in the manypillared halls in the Virupaksha (a form of Shiva) temple

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➢ The Mahanavami festival, known today as Navaratri in the south,, , was one of the most important festivals celebrated at Hampi., ➢ Archaeologists have found the Mahanavami platform where the, , king received guests and accepted tribute from subordinate chiefs., From here he also watched dance and music performances as well, as wrestling bouts., ➢ Hampi fell into ruin following the defeat of Vijayanagara in 1565 by, , the Deccani Sultans – the rulers of Golconda, Bijapur, Ahmadnagar,, Berar and Bidar.

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➢, , A FORTIFIED CITY ,d fdykcan uxj, , ➢ This is how a Portuguese traveller, Domingo Paes, described Hampi, , in the sixteenth century: …, at the entrance of the gate where those pass who come from Goa,, this king has made within it a very strong city fortified with walls, and towers; these walls are not like those of other cities, but are, made of very strong masonry such as would be found in few other, parts, and inside very beautiful rows of buildings made after their, manner with flat roofs.

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➢ During their rule, the Vijaynagara rulers took keen interest in, , building tanks and canals., ➢ The Anantraj Sagar Tank was built with a 1.37 km. long earthern, , dam across the Maldevi river., ➢ Krishnadeva Raya built a huge stone embankment between two, , hills to create a massive lake near Vijayanagara, from which, water was carried through aqueducts and channels to irrigate, fields and gardens.

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A CLOSER LOOK:, HAMPI, MASULIPATNAM AND SURAT, ➢, , A GATEWAY TO THE WEST: SURAT, lwjr µ if'pe dk izos'k }kj, , ➢ Surat in Gujarat was the emporium of western trade during the Mughal, , period along with Cambay (presentday Khambat) and somewhat later,, Ahmedabad., ➢ Surat was the gateway for trade with West Asia via the Gulf of Ormuz., ➢ Surat has also been called the gate to Mecca because many pilgrim, ships set sail from here.

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➢ Emporium ( okf.kT; Dsaæ), , ➢ A place where goods from diverse production centres are bought and, , sold., ➢ The city was cosmopolitan and people of all castes and creeds lived, , there., ➢ In the seventeenth century the Portuguese, Dutch and English had their, factories and warehouses at Surat., ➢ According to the English chronicler Ovington who wrote an account of, , the port in 1689, on average a hundred ships of different countries could, be found anchored at the port at any given time

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➢ There were also several retail and wholesale shops selling cotton, , textiles. The textiles of Surat were famous for their gold lace borders, (zari) and had a market in West Asia, Africa and Europe., ➢ The state built numerous rest-houses to take care of the needs of people, , from all over the world who came to the city. There were magnificent, buildings and innumerable pleasure parks., ➢ The Kathiawad seths or mahajans (moneychangers) had huge banking, houses at Surat., ➢ It is noteworthy that the Surat hundis were honoured in the far-off, markets of Cairo in Egypt, Basra in Iraq and Antwerp in Belgium.

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➢ HUNDI is a note recording a deposit made by a person. The amount, , deposited can be claimed in another place by presenting the record of, the deposit., ➢ However, Surat began to decline towards the end of the seventeenth, , century. This was because of many factors:, ➢ the loss of markets and productivity because of the decline of the, Mughal Empire,, ➢ control of the sea routes by the Portuguese and competition from, Bombay (present-day Mumbai) where the English East India Company, shifted its headquarters in 1668., ➢ Today, Surat is a bustling commercial centre.

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➢ The fort at Masulipatnam was built by the Dutch, , ➢ The Qutb Shahi rulers of Golconda imposed royal monopolies on the, , sale of textiles, spices and other items to prevent the trade passing, completely into the hands of the various East India Companies., ➢ Fierce competition among various trading groups – the Golconda nobles,, , Persian merchants, Telugu Komati Chettis, and European traders – made, the city populous and prosperous., ➢ As the Mughals began to extend their power to Golconda their, , representative, the governor Mir Jumla who was also a merchant,, began to play off the Dutch and the English against each other., ➢ In 1686-1687 Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb annexed Golconda.

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➢ It was a part of the new policy of the English East India Company that it, , was not enough if a port had connections with the production centres, of the hinterland., ➢ The new Company trade centres, it was felt, should combine political,, , administrative and commercial roles., ➢ As the Company traders moved to Bombay, Calcutta (present-day, , Kolkata) and Madras (present-day Chennai), Masulipatnam lost both its, merchants and prosperity and declined in the course of the eighteenth, century, being today nothing more than a dilapidated little town.

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NEW TOWNS AND TRADERS u, uxj vkSj O;kikjh, ➢ In the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, European countries were, , ➢, , ➢, ➢, ➢, , searching for spices and textiles, which had become popular both in, Europe and West Asia., The English, Dutch and French formed East India Companies in order to, expand their commercial activities in the east., Initially great Indian traders like Mulla Abdul Ghafur and Virji Vora who, owned a large number of ships competed with them., However, the European Companies used their naval power to gain, control of the sea trade and forced Indian traders to work as their agents., Ultimately, the English emerged as the most successful commercial and, political power in the subcontinent.

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➢ The spurt in demand for goods like textiles led to a great expansion of the, , crafts of spinning, weaving, bleaching, dyeing, etc. with more and more, people taking them up., ➢ Indian textile designs became increasingly refined. However, this period, , also saw the decline of the independence of craftspersons., ➢ They now began to work on a system of advances which meant that, they had to weave cloth which was already promised to European, agents., ➢ Weavers no longer had the liberty of selling their own cloth or weaving, their own patterns., ➢ They had to reproduce the designs supplied to them by the Company, agents.

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➢ The eighteenth century saw the rise of Bombay, Calcutta and, , Madras, which are nodal cities today., ➢ Crafts and commerce underwent major changes as merchants, , and artisans (such as weavers) were moved into the Black Towns, established by the European companies within these new cities., ➢ The “blacks” or native traders and craftspersons were confined, here while the “white” rulers occupied the superior residencies of, Fort St. George in Madras or Fort St. William in Calcutta.

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VASCO DA GAMA AND CHRISTOPHER COLUMBUS, ➢ In the fifteenth century European sailors undertook unprecedented, , explorations of sea routes. They were driven by the desire to find ways of, reaching the Indian subcontinent and obtaining spices, ➢ Vasco da Gama, a Portuguese sailor, sailed down the African Coast, went round, the Cape of Good Hope and crossed over to the Indian Ocean . His first journey, took more than a year; he reached Calicut in 1498, and returned to Lisbon, the, capital of Portugal, the following year., ➢ He lost two of his four ships, and of the 170 men at the start of the journey, only, 54 survived. In spite of the obvious hazards, the routes that were opened up, proved to be extremely profitable – and he was followed by English, Dutch and, French sailors.

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VASCO DA GAMA AND CHRISTOPHER COLUMBUS, ➢ On the assumption that the earth was round, Christopher, , Columbus, an Italian, decided to sail westwards across the, Atlantic Ocean to find a route to India. He landed in the West, Indies (which got their name because of this confusion) in 1492., ➢ He was followed by sailors and conquerors from Spain and, Portugal, who occupied large parts of Central and South, America, often destroying earlier settlements in the area.

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TAKEAWAYS, TRUE OR FALSE, 1., 2., 3., , 4., , We know the name of the architect of the, Rajarajeshvara temple from an inscription., Merchants preferred to travel individually, rather than in caravans., Kabul was a major centre for trade in, elephants., Surat was an important trading port on the, Bay of Bengal

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THANKS !